Oroxylum indicum is a semi-deciduous flowering tree in the Bignoniaceae family. It is commonly known as the Indian tumpet flower or the shattered bones tree. It is native to the Indian subcontinent and can be found up to 1000–1200 meters above mean sea level, mostly in the foothills of the Himalayas. Traditional medicine has traditionally used the plant Oroxylum indicum, commonly known as Sonapatha and a part of the Bignoniaceae family, often called the Trumpet Creeper family. The entire tree, including its roots, is used in indigenous medicine. Additionally, it goes by the names "Tree of Damocles" and "Shyonak" in Hindi and English, respectively. The plant is known as Midnight Horror in Malaysia because it blooms at night and emits a strong stench that attracts bats, which help with pollination [1].

The plant is sometimes referred to as a "broken bones tree" because the heap of dried petals and leaves beneath the tree resembles a pile of broken bones. Oroxylum indicum is frequently referred to as the "Indian trumpet tree" since it alludes to trumpet [2]^. It has been used in Ayurveda as a stand-alone treatment or as a component of a multi-herb medicinal preparation. It is also a part of mixes included in medications like Chyavanprash and Dashmularistha, as well as various oils used to relieve joint pain. Among the Asian nations with substantial populations of the plant are China, Taiwan, Japan, India, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines. The plant in Karnataka, India, is reportedly vulnerable. Sizes of the enormous leaves range from 90 to 180 cm [3, 4].

It has been discovered that almost every plant component has a range of pharmacological effects, but the seeds are by far the most important. The herb is used in traditional Asian medicine to prevent and treat a variety of illnesses [5]. The plant also possesses actions that are cardio-protective, nephroprotective, anti-aging, anti-adipogenesis, immunomodulatory, and anti-mutagenic. The plant has traditionally been used to cure a number of illnesses, such as intestinal worms, biliousness, bronchitis, inflammation, leukoderma, skin disorders, and wound injuries [1].

The seeds of Oroxylum indicum serve as an analgesic, anti-tussive, and anti-inflammatory agent and have been used to treat cough, bronchitis, and other diseases. Several qualities of the plant have been reported, including diuretic, anti-fungal, anti-bacterial, and anti-inflammatory effects. The plant is also said to contain a number of chemical elements that scavenge free radicals, making it a potent antioxidant. Due to its fantastic medicinal properties and constantly increasing demand, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has designated this plant as endangered.

A small to medium-sized deciduous tree with light to greyish brown porous bark that can reach heights of 12 to 16 meters is called Oroxylum indicum. The root is soft and sweet, and it has a brownish brown color. It typically has a lot of lenticels that are corky 8. With preservation, the flavor shifts from initially being sweet to bitter. As it dries, the bark shrinks, solidly adheres to the wood, and forms tiny cracks 2. The enormous, pinnately complex leaves appear to be around one meter long. The leaves have 2-4 leaflet pairs, are evergreen, oblong, and wavy [6].

The blossoms have a reddish-purple surface and a pinkish yellow inside. The blossoms open at night and emit a strong scent that attracts bats, which help with pollination. As a result, it's frequently referred to as "Mid-night Horror." The flowers are large, meaty, and violet in hue. Zygomorphic and bisexual flowers [6]. They have a 2.5 cm long pedicle, bloom in the months of June and July, and bear fruit in November. Giant fruits that can reach a length of 1.5 meters hang from bare branches like the wings of a giant bird. The fruits appear to be twisted as they near their apex.

Taxonomical Classification [7]

Fig 1: Flowers of Oroxylum Indicum.

Common Names

The term "Tetu" is used to refer to the plant Oroxylum indicum. Some of its regional names are Bhatghila, Tona, Bhut-vriksha, Shyonaka, and Hanyu Pinyin [8, 9]. Some of the customary names in Ayurveda are Shyonaaka, Shoshana, Tuntuka, Kutunnata, Mandukparna, Patrorna, Bhalluka, Prthushimba, Sonaapaatha, and Nata [10].

Sanskrit: Prthsuimba, Katvanga, Dirghavrnta.

Hindi: Sonapatha, Shyonak, Tentoo

English: Indian Trumpet flower, broken bones tree, Mid-night Horror, Indian calosanthes

Bengali: Sonagachh

Gujrati: Tentoo

Punjabi: Tatpaling, Talvarphali

Marathi: Tentoo, Tayitu, Tetu

A native of the Indian subcontinent, the Himalayan foothills, southern China, Sri Lanka, the Philippines, Indochina, and Malaysia, Oroxylum indicum is a small to medium-sized deciduous tree. In Assam, India, as well as a few spots in Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, and Odisha, the plant is a regular sight. The Eastern and Western Ghats, as well as other areas that are similar, are where it is most prevalent. Tropical woods in India can be found there up to an elevation of 1000–1200 m10. This priceless tree has become fragile in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh in addition to becoming endangered in Kerala, Maharashtra, M. P., and Chhattisgarh. It is consequently included on India's list of 10 as being endangered. Its locations include Taiwan, Yunnan, Cambodia, Indonesia (Java, Sumatra), Myanmar, Nepal, and Vietnam [8]. It grows untamedly in Bangladesh's Chittagong and adjacent hill tract regions. It is a tree that is usually spotted along riverbanks and hillside slopes and is typically found in damp environments.

Chemical Constituents

About 111 compounds were discovered by phytochemical analyses of the various plant sections, with flavonoids, naphthalenoids, and cyclohexylethanoids making up the majority of them. Secondary metabolites of many various types, including flavonoids, glycosides, alkaloids, tannins, terpenoids, etc., are found. Flavonoids are the main chemical components of all plant parts. The bark contains unusually high levels of tannins. Oroxylum indicum heartwood contains beta-sitosterol, isoflavone [11].

• Root: The root's bark includes the flavonoids chrysin, baicalein, and oroxylin-a as well as the compounds 5-hydroxy-4', 7-dimethoxy flavone, dihydro oroxylin A, and 7-O-methyl chrysin. Bark also contains di hydro baicalein as an ingredient. According to studies, the root bark contains the flavonoids 3, 4, 5, and 7-tetrahydro-flavonol, 5-hydroxy-4',7-dimethoxy flavones 14, as well as ellagic acid, scutellarin, 3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-2-propenoic acid, stigma-5-en-3-ol, and pratensol [12].
• Leaves: Anthraquinones, flavonoids, and their glycosides have been shown to be present in the leaves, including scutellarein, its 7-rutinoside, aloe-emodins 3, and baicalein, its 6-O-glucuronide, and its 7-O-glucuronide. The most frequent of these flavonoids and a key active ingredient in the plant is baicalein. According to multiple studies on the phytochemistry of the plant, baicalein was found in Oroxylum indicums' different components, including the stem bark, root bark, leaves, fruits, and seeds [4].

Baicalein has been traditionally used for its antioxidant, antiviral, antibacterial, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and allergy-fighting qualities 13. They also contain oroxyloside methyl ester, chrysin-7-O-methyl glucoside 8, and chrysin-7-O-diglucoside 12. In addition, apigenin 14, 1-(2-hydroxyethyl) cyclohexane-1, 4-diol, and quercetin-3-o-alpha-L-arabinopyranoside have been shown to be present in leaves.

• The stem: contains flavones like oroxylin A, p-coumaric acid, chrysin, baicalein's 7-glucuronide, and scutellarein's 7-rutinoside. In its stem, seeds, and root bark, Oroxylum indicum contains significant amounts of flavones, weak acids, and traces of alkaloids. The ethanol and chloroform extracts of stem bark included phenols and flavonoids while the water extract of stem bark contained saponins. Alkaloids were present in benzene, chloroform, and ethanol extracts [13].

The hydrobamethanolic extract of stem and root bark contains glycosides, terpenoids, phenols, and alkaloids. The components identified from the stem of Oroxylum indicum include chysin, oroxyloside, hispidulin, apigenin, ficusal, balanophonin, salicylic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, protocatechuic acid, isovanillin, oroxylin, pinostrobin, kaempferol, and lapachol.

• Seeds: Some of the chemical elements included in seeds include terpenes, alkaloids, saponins, and flavonoids. Numerous flavonoids are present in them, including chrysin, baicalein-7-O-diglucoside (Oroxylin B), apiagenin 6, and an additional one that hasn't been named yet. Seeds contain oroxidin, another flavone. Also includes ellagic acid. Seeds contain a variety of oils, such as caprylic, lauryic, myristic, palmitic, palmitoleic, stearic, oleic, and linoleic acids.
• Fruits: According to some sources, fruits include oroxylin-A, chrysin, orlumin A 1, and aloe-emodin [14].

Various Therapeutic Benefits for Stem Bark from Oroxylum Indicum, Including:

• Anti-hepatotoxic Activity: Rat liver explant cultures were used in vitro to test the effects of Oroxylum indicum whole plant's methanol-dichloromethane (MDM) extract on carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatotoxicity, and rats were used in vivo to test the effects of the extract. The results demonstrated that the MDM extract from the whole plant of Oroxylum indicum has hepatoprotective effects both in vitro and in vivo. Additionally, leaves are commonly utilized as a preventative in the Indian medical system for liver disorders. Oroxylum indicum has been found to protect the liver against a variety of damage brought on by experiments [7].
• Anthelmintic Activity: Oroxylum indicum stem bark extract was tested for its anthelmintic properties on both the juvenile and adult stages of Hymenolepis diminuta. The extract demonstrated potential for the prevention and treatment of intestinal helminthiases 19 by acting against both the larval and adult stages. When Jessica et al. assessed the anthelmintic efficacy of oroxylum indicum against equine strongyle eggs, they discovered that it was one of the most effective deworming drugs 3. In an uncontrolled experiment on 21 confirmed individuals with intestinal amoebiasis, oral administration of pure aqueous extract powder of Oroxylum indicum resulted in clinical improvement as well as the absence of Entamoeba Histolytica cysts in the stool of 19 patients.
• Anti-cancer Activity: Oroxylum indicum is said to possess properties that inhibit the growth and migration of tumor cells. The results showed that the flavonoid baicalein, which was identified in Oroxylum indicum 20, was a potent anti-furin and anti-tumor agent. It is employed to track the development of the human breast cancer cell line MDA-MB-43511. On Hep2 cell lines, an ethanol extract of Oroxylum indicum similarly exhibited anti-proliferative properties. An ethanolic extract of the stem bark of Oroxylum indicum was found to have in vivo anti-cancer activity [5]. In 2018, Chassagne et al. used a scoring method to select traditional herbs that are frequently used to treat liver issues and tested them for anti-cancer efficacy on liver cancer. One hundred and ten plants were examined, including Oroxylum indicum, Andrographis paniculate, Willughbeia edulis, Senna alata, Cananga latifolia, Salacia Chinensis L., Orthosiphon aristatus, Boerhavia diffusa L., Gomphrena celosioides, and Melastoma saigonense.
• Immunostimulant Activity: The n-butanol portion of the root bark of Oroxylum indicum was examined for immunostimulant properties. The immunological response to sheep red blood cells (SRBC hemagglutinating antibody [HA] titer) was measured and evaluated in rats. Following treatment with an n-butanol fraction of Oroxylum indicum, circulating HA titers dramatically increased, and demonstrating potentiation of several humoral response components. Malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in whole blood significantly decreased, while superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and reduced glutathione (GSH) activities and levels significantly increased, further demonstrating the drug's antioxidant capacity. Baicalein, a major flavonoid found in almost all plant parts, is suspected to have immunomodulatory properties.
• Antibacterial Activity: The antibacterial potential of Oroxylum indicum stem bark extract was investigated. In-vitro testing for antimicrobial susceptibility was conducted, and numerous Oroxylum indicum extracts' effects on the three strains of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria were investigated. The results suggested that the plant might regularly serve as a source of a potent antibacterial drug. An ethanol extract of leaves from Oroxylum indicum was relatively effective against Acinetobacter baumannii in vitro. The extracts of methanol, ethyl acetate, and ethanol from the stem bark of Oroxylum indicum were discovered to exhibit remarkable antibacterial capabilities when tested on three different species of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, including Bacillus subtilis, E. coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
• Gastroprotective Activity: The flavonoids in the stem bark of Oroxylum indicum give it its gastroprotective qualities. In a study, all flavonoids were tested for their capacity to shield rats from developing stomach ulcers using various models. Furthermore, a 50% alcohol extract of the root bark of Oroxylum indicum was reported to have gastroprotective qualities 3. Another study revealed that Oroxylum indicum's root bark had anti-ulcer capabilities against gastric ulcers created artificially.
• Antiviral Activity: Studies have shown that the human T cell leukemia virus type 1 and the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) 10 are inhibited by the flavonoid baicalin, which is abundant in the seeds of Oroxylum indicum. In a different study on the infection of the Chikungunya virus, extracts of Oroxylum indicum were employed. The extract shows some antiviral activities against CHIKV, according to the study.
• Oroxylum indicum's: root bark's ethyl acetate extract was found to exhibit anti-arthritic action in-vitro 5. Another trial used Oroxylum indicum's root bark to treat adjuvant-induced arthritis. When several extracts' anti-arthritic potential was investigated, chloroform and ethyl acetate extracts showed the most promise. The study's conclusions indicate that Oroxylum indicum root bark extracts have substantial anti-arthritic properties [4].
• Radioprotective Activity: Oroxylum indicum was discovered to be radioprotective in a study with albino rats. Studies on the protection of DNA against radiation-induced (5 and 10 Gy) damages were carried out in vitro using pBR322 plasmid DNA. After intra-peritoneal injection of 1-2g/kg of 60% ethanol extract, radioprotective effects in albino rats exposed to 1, 3, and 5 Gy were investigated using the comet test. Treatment with a 60% ethanol extract significantly decreased radiation-induced DNA damage in pBR322. A significant reduction in comet tail DNA and length was also seen in rat bone marrow cells. The results show that Oroxylum indicum fruits have potent antioxidant activities and may prevent DNA damage from radiation in both in vitro and in vivo models without manifesting any negative consequences [2].
• Anti-diabetic Activity: Studies on the anti-diabetic efficacy of extracts from the roots of Oroxylum indicum used Wistar albino rats as the test subjects. When compared to diabetic control groups, oral administration of Oroxylum indicum root extracts at doses of 300 and 500 mg/kg BW for 21 and 11 days, respectively, resulted in a significant decrease in serum glucose, triglyceride, and total cholesterol levels. The effects of a methanolic extract of Oroxylum indicum heartwood were revealed by a different experiment. The extract was found to have anti-diabetic characteristics since it was able to decrease -glucosidase activity.
• Analgesic Activity: Oroxylum indicum has been used as an analgesic for many years. The hot plate, tail immersion, and acetic acid tests were utilized to determine the analgesic activity of Oroxylum indicum, which acts on both the central and peripheral nervous systems. The inhibition of acetic acid-induced writhing and pain reduction using the hot plate method were evidence that Oroxylum indicum extract had significant analgesic activity, indicating that it may have some analgesic effects.
• Nephroprotective activity: The Indian System of Medicine regularly employs a decoction of Oroxylum indicum leaves and roots to prevent kidney disorders and dissolve kidney stones [14]. The chrysin from the dried root of Oroxylum indicum was evaluated for protection against cisplatin-induced acute renal failure. The nephroprotective effect was evaluated in male Albino rats. Increases in blood, urine nitrogen, and serum creatinine were used to indicate the acute renal impairment brought on by cisplatin. Animals given chrysin reversed all of the effects of cisplatin in a dose-dependent manner. Thus, the study supports the hypothesis that chrysin inhibited the nephrotoxic effects of cisplatin in rats.
• Anti-hyperlipidemic Activity: The anti-hyperlipidemic activity of Oroxylum indicum whole bark extract has been studied in the cholesterol-induced hyperlipidemic albino Wistar rat model. The root extract demonstrated a significant decrease in total cholesterol, total triglycerides, LDL, and VDL levels and a startling increase in HDL levels while the index and LDL: HDL risk ratio were also much lower in the group that got the extract.
• Wound Healing: Recovering from a wound can be challenging. The process starts as soon as the injury happens, even though the epidermal layer's development may take years. After topical administration of ointments containing 1.5% and 2.5% of the extract, it has been demonstrated that the methanolic extract of the root bark of Oroxylum indicum can partially heal burn wounds in mice. Another study investigated the ability of the methanolic extract of Oroxylum indicum to heal wounds. The extract possesses significant wound healing qualities, as evidenced by the rate at which the wound contracted. Significant wound contraction was observed in the animal groups treated with Oroxylum indicum starting on day. The scientific basis for the traditional usage of Oroxylum indicum in the treatment of wounds has been established.
• Antiobesic Effect: A number of diseases, including as diabetes, cancer, and cardiovascular risk, are associated with obesity. Oroxylum indicum reportedly has the ability to reduce obesity to a manageable level. The bark of Oroxylum indicum was utilized to treat 3T3-L1 adipocytes, and it was shown that the extracts of hexane, dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, and methanol were the most successful at preventing lipid buildup and lipase activity. Studies show that Oroxylum indicum extract inhibits adipogenesis and lipase in culture.
• Antioxidant Activity: Several Oroxylum indicum extracts were tested for their ability to scavenge free radicals using the in vitro DPPH (diphenyl-picryl-hydrazyl) assay. Antioxidants included in the plant extract converted DPPH to 1, 1-diphenyl-1, 2-dipicryl hydrazine. In the following order, plant extracts and the standard (L-ascorbic acid) exhibit a diminishing scavenging effect on the DPPH radical: It was found to be 97.4%, 61.4%, 40.8%, and 29.2% for L-ascorbic acid, ethyl acetate, methanol, and water, respectively, at a concentration of 100 g/ml. Another study identified Oroxylum indicum bark extracts' in-vitro antioxidant potential. Reactive oxygen species (ROS), which cause oxidative stress and disease, may be lessened by using this plant, according to the study's findings. Additionally, the leaves of Oroxylum indicum showed in vitro antioxidant activity. The flavones, fractions, and methanol extract from the bark of Oroxylum indicum have also been the subject of investigation.

Prospective Range of the Crop

As the demand for vegetables grows every day, so does the strain on the land and vegetable producers to produce more of them. Oroxylum indicum, therefore, has a great deal of potential as a valuable vegetable in the future. Additionally, because it has several beneficial medicinal properties for humans, this crop can be further explored through research and experiments for better utilization in the future and successful results.

Uses for Various Plant Parts in Traditional Medicine (Medicinal Properties): For the treatment of numerous illnesses, Oroxylum indicum has long been used to make a variety of Ayurvedic treatments, such as Amritarista, Dantyadyarista, Brahma Rasayana, etc. [10]. The root bark of Oroxylym indicum is used to treat stomatitis, nasopharyngeal cancer, and TB [8]. In addition to helping with intestinal worms, fevers, asthma, vomiting, diarrhea, and dysentery, it also increases appetite.

Charaka and Sushruta prescribed Oroxylum indicum internally for chronic diarrhea, non-healing ulcers, and gynecological problems because it has antibacterial, antitoxic, astringent, and styptic properties. The drug was also employed to promote the adhesion of shattered bones.

• Roots: Ayurvedic medicine uses fresh roots because dried roots lose their effectiveness after a few months. Biliousness, fever, bronchitis, intestinal worms, vomiting, diarrhea, leukoderma, asthma, inflammation, and anal issues can all be treated using the plant's root bark. Additionally, it has astringent, cooling, bitter, pungent, aphrodisiac, and tonic properties [3]. According to reports, roots have been used to cure tuberculosis. The main ingredient in roots is ellagic acid, which is also used as an astringent, stomachic, anodyne, and sudorific in addition to being used to treat otorrhea.

Additionally, roots are used to cure dropsy. The root bark's anti-allergic properties allow it to be used to treat a variety of allergic conditions, including measles, urticaria, jaundice, sore throats, laryngitis, hoarseness, gastralgia, and diarrhea [3]. The root bark is used to make a nootropic chemical. A decoction of the root bark is very effective in treating nasopharyngeal cancer. Since the root bark is a blood purifier and tonic, it is used to cure digestive problems. The paste made from root bark has hepatoprotective qualities. A decoction of dried root bark can also be used to cure jaundice.

• Bark: By macerating it in alcohol, the bark can be used to treat allergic dermatitis. The plant's bark is used to cure a number of stomach disorders. The bark is externally used in veterinary medicine. A decoction of bark reportedly compared favorably to potassium acetate and had higher diuretic effectiveness in rats than urea. When infused, bark powder causes diaphoresis. A paste made of bark powder is administered for mouth cancer, scabies, and other skin diseases.
• The stem: includes a variety of flavones, alkaloids, tannic acid, sitosterol, and galactose and is used to treat rheumatism. The roots and stem bark of Oroxylum indicum have long been used to cure a number of gastrointestinal ailments. 15. Different gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, along with yeast Extracts of stem and root bark in dichloromethane are ineffective against Candida albicans [10]^.
• Fruits: Tender fruits are carminative, spasmolytic, and digestive. The fruits have several health benefits, including being delicious, anthelmintic, and helpful for leukoderma, piles, bronchitis, illnesses of the heart and throat, as an expectorant, and to boost appetite. 3. Bronchitis, leukoderma, and helminthiasis can all be treated with the fruits. The fruit's 50% ethanolic extract showed spasmogenic action in an isolated guinea pig ileum, but not the root, stem, or stembark extracts. Fruits have mutagenic-preventive qualities. They are also used in the tanning and dyeing processes. Mature fruits are beneficial for pharyngodynia, heart problems, gastropathy, hemorrhoids, cough, jaundice, dyspepsia, smallpox, and cholera.
• Leaves: Aloe-emodin and anthraquinone are found in leaves, which are used as emollients. Leaves are used to cure an enlarged spleen in addition to headaches and ulcers. 3. Hair loss and baldness can be treated with a paste produced from leaves. Additionally, they are advised for snakebite 8. Young leaves and blossoms are eaten uncooked as a side dish. It is acceptable to apply a leaf decoction externally for cholera, fever, labor, and rheumatic swellings.
• Seeds: Flavones, terpenes, alkaloids, and saponins are the main purgative elements of seeds. There are antimicrobial qualities in the extract. It has been demonstrated that the seeds work well in the treatment of chronic cough and gastritis. According to reports, they help to decrease blood pressure. Some Indian tribes also use the seeds as a digestion aid. The seed extract has analgesic, anti-tussive, and anti-inflammatory properties. Seed paste is applied externally to cure boils and sores. The seeds and bark are used medicinally to reduce physical pain, particularly during fevers. They have laxative and expectorant properties. A paste produced from the seed is applied to the neck to fast ease tonsil pain. The dry powder is used by women to promote ovulation.

Both conventional and Ayurvedic medicine use oroxylum indicum to treat a variety of human afflictions. There are many additional properties that have not yet been reported, such as those that are analgesic, nephroprotective, anti-hepatotoxic, anti-cancer, immuno-stimulating, antimicrobial, gastro-protective, antiviral, anti-arthritic, radioprotective, and wound healing. Research that was conducted using various in-vivo and in-vitro biological evaluation techniques lends support to the majority of these claims. Even though there has been a lot of research on this plant, some of its properties are still unclear. It was intended to compile all available information about Oroxylum indicum, including both traditional and modern uses.

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