Cyberbullying has been escalating in concurrence with increased access to the Internet, technological devices, and social media. As achieving success in higher education studies now necessitates access to information technology, university students have become highly exposed to and involved in incidences of cyberbullying [1]. With more than four billion Internet users across the globe, the online world is now part of everyday life and it plays a vital role in society. Today’s world is entirely dependent on technology and young people, in particular, are living digital lives that are dependent on the internet. [1] concede that the boom of information and communication technologies (ICTs) has significantly influenced the lives of human beings.

With the advent of the Internet, the nature and form of socialisation among the youth have been transformed. Physical socialisation activities such as attending parties and group get-togethers have been replaced with conversations in chat rooms, text messages, and other forms of cyber communication. Young people invariably go online using social networking sites to connect with their peers, exchange views, socialise, and feel socially accepted and a part of the group [2]. It is therefore not surprising that erstwhile acts of school bullying − or ‘offline’ bullying − have been transferred to cyber platforms. Although cyberbullying is a modern form of traditional (or offline) bullying, it is characterised by similar motives to those that instigated traditional bullying. Cyberbullying now manifests online as text messages and/or images that are posted on various social networking sites. [3] define cyberbullying as “online exchanges to harm the recipient”. These exchanges appear in various forms such as sending threatening messages, spreading rumours, attacking someone verbally, intentionally excluding someone from a group, pretending to be someone else, publicising unflattering pictures of a person, circulating sexually suggestive pictures, and sharing confidential information online (National Crime Prevention Council, 2011).

The Internet is a popular communication channel that is avidly used across the globe by university students. Millennials, which include most university students, are frequent users of digital technology and often lead the way in the everyday use of new technologies [1]. Unfortunately, this wide exposure can create a platform that exposes them to a host of unwanted activities and distractions such as fake content, religious extremism, inappropriate political involvement, pornography, drugs, violence, and cyberbullying [4].  Modern technology has created a borderless world and has shifted bullying to cyberbullying which has become prevalent among the youth everywhere − in schools, tertiary institutions, and the world of work [5].

Bullying in any form and by any means targets victims to break them down emotionally, ostracise them socially, and harm them physically. It varies considerably in severity but commonly occurs when a more powerful person directs his/her aggression repeatedly at a less powerful person. The most common purposes are to hurt, humiliate and isolate individuals [6]. Bullied victims are often scared to talk about how they are bullied and who the bullies are. Many school-going victims choose to avoid school and this negatively impacts their achievement. Evidence has also shown that, if bullying is not managed, it causes severe problems for victims such as deliberate absenteeism from classes, dropping out of school, and even suicide [6].

Two major quantitative studies were conducted recently to gauge young people’s access to, use of, and experiences in using ICTs. Findings that were published by the Centre for Justice and Crime Prevention (CJCP) (2009) and the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University (2011) support the notion that ICTs are in high use among young people both internationally and in South Africa. Statistics also affirm a high incidence of cyber aggression among South Africa’s youth. For instance, over a third (37%) of young people surveyed in the CJCP (2009) study admitted to having experienced some form of cyber aggression either at home or at school. This was consistent with the finding by the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University [7] that 36% of young participants in the study had been cyberbullied. According to the CJCP, this figure increased to nearly half of all respondents (46.8%) when harassment via the telephone was included in a survey [8]. These figures are in line with international statistics. For instance, a study in the United States (US) found that 30% of a sample of young people reported being victims of cyberbullying [9], while a Canadian study found that 21.9% of young people in grades 6–11 had experienced at least one form of cyberbullying during the three months before the study. Data also confirm that cyberbullying occurs via a diverse range of media, of which the most common are voice calls (28%) and text messages (25.6%) [10].

As many young people have their mobile phones with them at all times, cyber aggression has become the most difficult form of bullying to escape [8]. Cyber aggression that is transmitted by mobile phones also tends to occur via MXit. One UNICEF study found that 26% of respondents had experienced insults, particularly race-based insults [11]. According to [8], South African girls are only slightly more susceptible to cyberbullying at home (43.4%) and in the school environment (33.1%) compared to boys (42.4% at home and 29.3% at school). This trend has been observed internationally as well, and [12] suggest that this is because the verbal and relational nature of cyberbullying is closely associated with female socialisation processes. Research has also found no significant differences between the sexes concerning the perpetration of cyber violence [13]. [10].report the finding of a study conducted in 2009 stating that 18.3% of the participants had bullied someone via text messages (SMS), 16.9% had bullied someone via phone calls, 12.2% had used chat rooms, 11.8% had used instant messaging, and 9.2% had used video recordings or photos.

Cyberbullying is a growing scourge in South Africa and has become a pertinent challenge among young people that many schools and tertiary institutions need to address [14]. According to a study conducted by the United Nations Children’s Fund, South Africa is one of the main consumers of mobile technology as well as social networking on the continent of Africa [11]. [15] And [16] agree that cyberbullying is an increasing phenomenon among South Africa’s youth, arguing that the consequences have significant and long-lasting emotional effects on the victims. Ten years ago, the Centre for Justice and Crime Prevention (2012) indicated that almost 46% of South African high school learners was experiencing some form of cyberbullying.

The considerable increase over the past few years in the use of mobile phones, text messaging, emails, chat rooms, and social networks have altered our social environment and has, in many ways, directed social interactions. Comparative data suggest that South Africans are “some of the highest users of mobile technology and mobile social networking on the [African] continent compared to other countries such as Cameroon, Ethiopia, Namibia, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zambia” [17]. Young people, who generally acquire technological skills more rapidly than adults, lead the way in the daily use of ICTs. A recent study has shown that nine out of ten (92.9%) 12- to 24-year-olds either owned or had access to a mobile phone for their personal use [8]. A survey conducted in Cape Town, Durban, and Johannesburg among learners who were between 13 and 17 years old found that 81% had access to a computer at home while 62% were able to use their home computers to access the internet [18]. The growing affordability of smartphones and data bundles has further decreased the number of youths in South Africa who have no access to the internet.

While digital technology has countless benefits such as valuable social connections, opportunities for academic and social support, identity exploration, and cross-cultural interactions, it also has the potential to expose young people to high-risk and age-inappropriate content that they may otherwise not have been able to access. The often uncensored and unmonitored nature of the cyber environment exposes young people to pornography, violence, harmful information, sexual predators, and disturbing images. Even more alarmingly, this has paved the way for new forms of aggression and victimisation perpetrated against the country’s child and youth population. Cyberbullying via mobile phones takes the form of malicious text messages or messages of a sexual nature (known as ‘sexting’) or the taking and posting of pictures and videos of someone to distribute the content to others via mobile phones or computers [19].  Individuals may also impersonate others online or create fake profiles with which to perpetrate cyber aggression.

Significance of the Study

Cyberbullying can affect all age groups who have access to and can use electronic communication tools. Online materials spread fast and have a wide audience. The purpose of this paper is to address the issue of cyberbullying in an institution of higher learning. If this problem is curbed, it may support the goal of education for all and assist in promoting quality education in institutions where all students are free from cyber harassment and depression that might lead to psychological trauma. This paper explores the effects of cyberbullying and proposes a series of coping mechanisms that student victims of cyberbullying may employ. It also proposes strategies for the consideration of policymakers to address the issue of cyberbullying at the tertiary level.

Theoretical Framework

The extensive use of digital technologies and their increased accessibility have caused a marked shift in bullying from personal face-to-face encounters to electronic media. The prevalence of cyberbullying, which became notable in the 2000s, has increased in the past twenty years. This study utilised reasoned action and the theory of planned behaviour, to explain why some people engage in cyberbullying behaviour. The theory of reasoned action reveals individual reasons for performing health behaviours. It was first proposed by Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) and is used to explain behaviours that individuals can control. This theory addresses the concept of ‘perceived behaviour control’. However, as time and behaviour may not always be in the control of a person, the theory of planned behaviour was introduced by [20]. The central idea of the latter theory is that an individual plan and thus intentionally performs a specific action. Intentions are assumed to capture the motivational factors that influence behaviour, and these intentions are an indication of how hard people are willing to try and how much effort they are planning to exert to perform expert behaviour. Generally, the stronger the intention to engage in a behaviour is, the more likely its performance becomes [20].

The theory of reasoned action argues that an action that is taken is completely voluntary, whereas the theory of planned behaviour posits that behaviour is both voluntary and involuntary [21].  The effects of behaviour thus emerge from the intention of that behaviour. ‘Behavioural intent’ is defined as a person’s desire for behaviour and the effort he/she makes to act according to that intention. Attitude towards behaviour, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control are important in the formulation of behavioural intent. According to the theory of planned behaviour, the expected results of a particular behaviour, behavioural beliefs, and behavioural expectations as perceived by individuals such as individuals’ family, friends, spouses, or others constitute normative beliefs [22].

According to [23], the theory of reasoned action is a sound basis from which to explain bullying and cyberbullying. Five structures are mentioned in the framework namely beliefs and attitudes, perceived home and school environments, perceived self-efficacy, behavioural intent, and behaviour. It is stated that these structures are interrelated and affect students’ behaviour and actions related to cyberbullying, and they thus play an important role in explaining cyberbullying behaviour. Students’ behaviour during and after cyberbullying is affected by whether they are victims of cyberbullying, engage in cyberbullying, witness cyberbullying, have specific beliefs and thoughts about cyberbullying, and their perceptions about home and school environments [22].  [24] Who adopted the theory of reasoned action in their study, argue that positive attitudes towards cyberbullying, empathy towards cyber victims, and norms involving cyberbullying measures affect people’s intention to harm others online.

When it was originally proposed, the theory of reasoned action (TRA) was applied to behaviour over which individuals have complete control [25]. TRA was later expanded to include the notion that one can plan and perform a behaviour (i.e., perceived behavioural control). This newly proposed theory is referred to as the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) [25]. One’s attitude towards behaviour and subjective norms of the behaviour thus influence behavioural intention, which in turn influences behaviour [26]. The application of this theory in this paper is thus based on the notion that, because college students have ready access to the Internet and cellular phones, nearly all of them have the technical capacity to plan and engage in cyberbullying.

The study on which this paper is based was positioned within the interpretive paradigm. [27] Notes that, within the interpretive paradigm, the researcher is interested in understanding how participants make meaning of a particular circumstance. He or she then seeks to obtain answers about this phenomenon by exploring the approach to and the worldview of people involved in that particular situation. This paradigm allowed the generation of data that provided in-depth insight into cyberbullying. The nature of the research questions necessitated the use of a qualitative methodology to gain the insights required to explain the topic under investigation. In such research, the perspective of the researcher matters as it is not far removed from the research he/she engages in [29-30].  Moreover, to answer the research questions, a detailed account of the experiences of study participants needs to be provided, which in this case was the implications of cyberbullying on students enrolled at the Howard College Campus of the University of KwaZulu-Natal. Although the university has five campuses, the Howard College campus was purposely selected as it is where the researchers commenced their tertiary studies.

This study used purposive sampling as participants were selected based on defining characteristics that rendered them holders of the required data [31].  Purposive sampling was not only used to select the participants, but also to select the setting, incidents, events, and activities required for data collection [31].  The sample consisted of 10 participants who were engaged in semi-structured interviews. The participants were not hesitant to speak and shared their insights and knowledge comfortably and frankly [32].  The probing technique allowed for the use of standard questions that could then be individually tailored to elicit clarification or to probe the participants’ reasoning [33]. Such questions are suitable in qualitative studies as they allow individual responses to a set of interview questions [34]. A semi-structured interview was conducted with each student. The challenge of using semi-structured interviews is that the enquiry can be side-tracked by issues that are not related to the study [35], and the researchers thus consciously guided the participants back to the focus of the research when they digressed. The recorded interview data were thus transcribed and analysed thematically. A coding technique was used to make the data more manageable for analysis and interpretation. This analytical approach facilitated an in-depth understanding of the cyberbullying phenomenon as perceived by selected students at the Howard College Campus, UKZN.

Ethical clearance to conduct the study on campus was obtained in writing from the Research Office of UKZN. The identities of the participants and the data individuals generated were treated confidentially [36]. Informed consent forms were obtained from the participants after the issues of privacy and anonymity had been explained. The interviews were recorded with the participants’ permission.

Limitations of the Study

The study was delimited to student participants at Howard College Campus. None of the university staff was included. Although the literature suggests that females tend to be more affected by cyberbullying on campus than males, the study did not consider gender as a focus. An age restriction also did not apply, although the participants were students between the ages of 20 and 28. The interviews were conducted in English. Although the students came from backgrounds where English was their second or third language, no language barrier was experienced.

Findings and Discussion

The study utilised a qualitative approach as it sought to explore the experiences of students regarding cyberbullying. A set of both closed- and open-ended interview questions that had been prepared in advance was utilised during the semi-structured one-on-one interviews. The sound data collection and analysis methodologies that were employed validate the findings.

All the participants understood what the terms ‘bullying’ and ‘cyberbullying’ implied and they could explain them in line with the literature, although some deviations occurred in their definitions. This contributed to the validity of the research findings as the participants understood the implications of the topic under investigation within the immediate environment where they studied. For instance, Participant 1 responded as follows:

“To me, cyberbullying means to hurt someone whom you think has lesser power than you, online. A person can be forced to do things that he/she doesn’t like. Sometimes you’ll find that a lesser-powered person loses his/her belongings because they are taken by the more powerful person online.”

In the same vein, Participant 3 stated:

“Cyberbullying is a process of aggressiveness towards a person who has less power. This is an emotional scare that lingers forever because it stays online.”

Some participants demonstrated a different understanding of the concept of cyberbullying. For instance, Participant 7 stated:

“To me, cyberbullying is to be forced to do things you do not like online or it is when a person does what is not recommended to be done to someone else online.”

This latter statement shows that some participants did not have a clear understanding of the concept of cyberbullying, while others did. This suggests the need for cyberbullying awareness campaigns on the university campus to prevent students from falling victim to cyberbullying. Moreover, they should also be assisted to manage the stress should they become victims of cyberbullying. The participants viewed cyberbullying as a physical or emotional threat that would be difficult to escape. Although the participants had a general understanding of the term, each participant constructed the phenomenon differently, which was due to either their personal experiences and/or their observations.

The Nature of Cyberbullying

The participants experienced different forms and frequencies of cyberbullying. Of the ten participants, two had been victims of online sexual harassment as the offenders had posted offensive sexual pictures or videos of them on social media, two had experienced rumours being spread about them, one had received aggressive text messages, and another had received harmful remarks because of a poor social background. Some had also been called harmful names by their peers as a form of mockery and, in some instances, inappropriate pictures/videos of the participants’ bodies had been posted online. The following information was provided:

“My ex-boyfriend took pictures when I was naked in the shower but I was not seeing that [he was] taking pictures and he took those pictures and posted them on the social network” (Participant 1).

Participant 5 shared a similar experience:

“My ex-boyfriend shot pictures of me when I was asleep and naked and posted it on Facebook after we separated.”

Another participant described her experience as follows:

“My ex-boyfriend took a video after we [had] agreed that we want to see how we perform when we are having sex and not to see video porn for movies but to see our own video of us, but when we separated, he took this video and posted it on social media.” (Participant 2).

The two experiences that were first mentioned differ in the sense that the latter occurred after an agreement between the two partners to record their sexual activity, but the former occurred when the male partners did not have the consent of the female partners to be photographed. Participant 3 recalled a similar experience to the one above:

“My ex-boyfriend recorded a sex video while we were busy having sex using a hidden cell phone while I was not aware that [he] was taking a video. The next day he started a fight. After the fight, he posted the sex video on social media.”

Regardless of the consent of the female partners to be recorded or not, videos/pictures of a sexual nature implicating these female participants were posted on social media, which impacted the female partners’ image and emotional equilibrium negatively. It is undeniable that, in all the cases mentioned above, the young men purposively, without the permission of their female partners, shared intimate details with them on social media. These incidences are explained by the theory of reasoned action which, according to [37] is a widely accepted model that predicts the determinants of intended behaviour. These predictions have been applied in different fields to intervene in aggressive behaviours [37]. According to [26], there are three determinants of human behaviour, namely intentions and their antecedents which is the attitude toward behaviour and subjective norm. Attitude refers to the beliefs of a person that are already in his/her mind and that lead to the formation of either a negative or a positive attitude towards behaviour. Judgment about an act (e.g., to post a video that is harmful to another) is influenced by attitude. This means that it can be predicted that, when a person is in favour of a negative attitude towards behaviour, his/her negative behavioural intention will be acted upon [26].

The TRA can be used to predict the behaviour of cyberbullies as is evident in the above statement by Participant 3 whose boyfriend recorded their sexual activities while she was not aware of it. The intention behind this was to harm her when the relationship ended. [24] argue that subjective norms and attitudes are significant when predicting cyberbullying behaviour. For instance, the secret recording of the sex act revealed the man’s attitude and predicted his intention to bully his girlfriend in future. This was in his mind; it was a planned action which is explained by the theory of planned behaviour [20].

Students also experienced harassment as Participant 2 stated:

“My ex-girlfriend wrote wrong information about my sexual life.”

The experience by Participant 6 revealed an even darker intention by the perpetrator as those above:

“My ex-boyfriend posted a picture of myself and a baboon and compared it to me and wrote that it looked like me on social media.”

The above excerpt is explained by the theory of planned behaviour which, according to [20] is central to the individual’s intention to perform a given behaviour. In this instance, it was not only to tarnish the girl’s image but to ridicule and humiliate her even more. The TPB explains that the most detailed information about the determinants of behaviour is contained in a person’s normative and control beliefs [20]. This explains why the perpetrator intentionally caused severe stress after breaking up with the girl. [5] explain that cyberbullies do not have to be strong or fast; they just need access to a cell phone or computer and have the desire to terrorize. It can be argued that some males intentionally keep a digital record of their female partners’ activities to be used as an act of revenge in the future if a breakup has occurred. The male who is a potential offender waits for a real-time situation to compromise his partner when he has access to a cell phone and/or computer. This poses a serious threat to the safety and image of the female partner who becomes the victim of cyberbullying once pictures or videos of her have been posted by her ex-boyfriend.

Cyberbullying impacted the participants differently. All who were victimised were embarrassed and some became depressed. Some had suicidal thoughts and most admitted to underperforming academically. They agreed that a cyberbullying policy was not accessible at the institution and that the available support services did not fully meet their needs. Although there are Risk Management Service (RMS) and a counselling unit on campus, they neither prevented cyberbullying nor addressed the students’ emotional needs. It seems a travesty that no policy against cyberbullying is available at the university although there is a law against it as stated in the South African Constitution. The study revealed that the effects of cyberbullying included the destruction of emotional well-being and poor academic performance.

A study involving 1963 students in the USA by [38] revealed that cyberbullying caused suicidal thoughts. This highlights the seriousness of cyberbullying as some victims’ level of desperation and feelings of powerlessness, suffering, and isolation can be life-threatening. Such feelings warrant immediate support from a professional consultant or any campus counselling unit.

The study also revealed that cyberbullying negatively affected the relationship of the victims with their friends. Participant 1, who had been a victim, stated:

“Some of the students started to isolate, laugh, and reject me after seeing the wrong information that was posted about me on social media”.

Many of the victims felt helpless in the face of cyberbullying. Unfortunately, they did not receive support from those who were supposed to help them. Participant 5 said:

“There is no one around me who is feeling pity and showing support.”

Some participants who had been bullied shared their severe reactions in response to being victimised. One participant summarises the view shared by many:

“I want to kill myself because the person who is bullying me keeps on bullying me and people, when they see me they laugh at me so that is why I decided that it is better to kill myself.”

The findings highlight the significance of cyberbullying in the lives of students on the Howard College campus. Although an investigation of other campuses was beyond the scope of this study, similar trauma may be experienced by students at other universities in South Africa. This notion is supported by the fact that, even though students in this study had access to the latest digital technologies, they were not emotionally equipped to prevent cyberbullying and cope with its devastating effects.

The study confirmed that the cyber-bullied victims experienced high levels of emotional stress such as depression, frustration, and low self-esteem. The most severe impact was depression which was persistent in most of the participants. [9], whose study was conducted in the USA, reported that 27% of the victims of cyberbullying reported feeling depressed. This rate was lower in the USA study than in the current study that was conducted on cyberbullying in South Africa.

The most disconcerting discovery was the suicidal thoughts that were experienced by two of the participants. This result is significant as a quarter of the participants contemplated suicide which, fortunately, they had not acted upon. [39] argue that victims might feel so desperate that they resort to self-harm and even suicide. In the current study, a cyber-bullied victim stated:

“I thought of committing suicide [as it] will be the best solution because I won’t ever be bullied by anyone because I will be dead.”

Cyberbullying and Academic Performance

The study found that cyberbullying affected the academic performance of the victims as more than half of the participants had begun to skip classes and about a third of them had thought of quitting their studies. This finding confirms the statement by [40] that cyberbullying is a devastating phenomenon that contributes to the high rate of absenteeism and school/university dropouts in South Africa.

 In a South African study that was conducted by [41], victims of school cyber bullying hated schooling because of their fear of being ridiculed online. In another study, [42] showed that 54% of school dropouts had been victims of cyberbullying. The current study thus confirmed that being a victim of cyberbullying affects students’ academic performance. For instance, the marks of about a quarter of the victims had dropped and more than a third had had to repeat modules. The findings also demonstrated that the victims of cyberbullying continued to suffer emotionally and that this harmed their academic performance. One participant shared this experience by stating:

“I lacked concentration and could hardly read. Most times I was made a jest of by some of my friends who had seen the post and I would like to stay out of class”

Another student reported being unable to focus during lectures:

“I developed a lack of focus, and was psychologically unstable and withdrawn”.

Similarly, one participant stated:

“I was not interested in attending classes anymore because the incident was posted on the students' group chat”.

Clearly, not only does cyberbully have psychological side-effects on students, but it poses a serious threat to their academic achievement because such student victims refrain from attending lectures due to the fear of mockery and criticism, which are forms of secondary victimisation. First, victims are bullied on the Internet and most of their peers, who view the posting on social media, lack compassion and use this as an opportunity to cruelly mock and criticise them. Cyberbullying does not end when images or videos are posted, but it persists as the general public can now view them and post further derogatory comments. This creates a vicious cycle as such posts are not easily erased − they remain in cyberspace. Consequently, victims prefer to withdraw from school while some contemplate suicide.

Measures to Deal with Cyberbullying

The students had some views on how to deal with the problem of cyberbullying students, but their solutions were few. Some participants admitted that they deleted their online accounts so that they would not be able to see what was happening on social media. However, harassment seemed to persist and suicidal tendencies became more common.

Sometimes people who bully others online are doing so to resist harm to themselves. Tragically, students who bully others online are often considered popular among their classmates. However, although bullies may seem popular at university, many have problems. They lack trust in others and find it difficult to get close to people and forge strong relationships, and many cyberbullies thus lack good friends. [43] states that if bullies who are still students do not learn how to form positive relationships, they may continue to bully others as they get older.

The study investigated the access to and use of cyber technology, choice of social media sites, social media platforms used, and frequency of cyberbullying and their impact on students. This investigation revealed that all the sampled students were active online and that most had experienced cyberbullying. The students were aware of cyber technology and made use of it frequently. All the students had mobile phones and most were connected to social media sites continuously. 

This study affirmed that cyberbullying is characterised by the transformation from traditional bullying forms to online forms through social media platforms. Constant exposure to and interaction with online technologies, regardless of the convenience they provide, expose users to certain online connections that may at some point put their safety and emotional and psychological well-being at risk. Students are thus continually at risk of cyberbullying as they are utilising online technologies daily. The participants experienced a variety of cyberbullying attacks such as visual exposure of their sexual activities, rumours, aggressive comments, harmful remarks, name-calling, mockery, and rejection.

The findings confirmed the significance of cyberbullying in the lives of students on the Howard College campus, which may suggest similar experiences by students in other tertiary settings in South Africa. It was clear that, even though students at this university had access to the latest cyber technology, they were not equipped to either prevent or cope with its negative effects. Most victims had to suffer in solitude. Moreover, a definitive policy against cyberbullying has not been accessed by the students despite a guiding legal framework that such a policy should be in existence at educational institutions. These findings are alarming and it is thus imperative that educational institutions in South Africa domesticate the legal framework as a policy that deals with the emerging reality of cyberbullying on campus. Such a policy should facilitate the implementation of and access to use strategies to help victims of cyberbullying. It should also offer deterrent mechanisms against the perpetration of this crime on campus.

1. Shaikh FB, Rehman M, Amin A. Cyberbullying: a systematic literature review to identify the factors impelling university students towards cyberbullying. IEEE Access. 2020; 8: 148031-148051.
2. Farhangpour P, Matendawafa A. The impact of social network sites on the social health of University of Venda students, South Africa. African J for Phy Health Edu Recreation and Dance. 2014; 20: 412-425.
3. Faucher C, Jackson M, Cassidy W. Cyberbullying among university students: Gendered experiences, impacts, and perspectives. Edu Res Int. 2014.
4. Asanan ZZT, Hussain IA, Laidey NM. A study on cyberbullying: Its forms, awareness and moral reasoning among youth. Int J Information and Communication Sci. 2017; 2: 54-58.
5. Notar CE, Padgett S, Roden J. Cyberbullying: A review of the literature. Uni j of edu res. 2013; 1: 1-9.
6. Beran T. Stability of harassment in children: Analysis of the Canadian National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth data. J of Sch Psychol. 2008; 142: 131-146.
7. De Lange J, Von Solms R, Gerber M (2016) Information security management in local government. IST-Africa Week Conference. IEEE. 2016; 1-11.
8. Burton P, Mutongwizo T. Inescapable violence: Cyberbullying and electronic violence against young people in South Africa. Centre for J Crime Prevention Planning. 2009; 8: 1-12.
9. Patchin JW, Hinduja S. Bullies move beyond the schoolyard: A preliminary look at cyberbullying. Youth violence juvenile justice. 2006; 4: 148-169.
10. Popovac M, Leoschut L. Cyberbullying in South Africa: Impact and responses. Centre for justice and crime prevention. 2012; 13: 1-16.
11. Beger G, Hoveyda P, Sinha A. From ?What’s your ASLR’ to ?Do you wanna go private?’ THE DIGITAL CITIZENSHIP AND SAFETY PROJECT & THE YOUTH SECTION AT UNICEF. 2011.
12. Wade A, Beran T. Cyberbullying: The new era of bullying. Canadian J School Psychol. 2011; 26: 44-61.
13. Smith PK, Mahdavi J, Carvalho M, et al. An investigation into cyberbullying, its forms, awareness and impact, and the relationship between age and gender in cyberbullying. Research Brief No. RBX03-06. London: DfES J child psychol. 2006.
14. Goodno NH. How public schools can constitutionally halt cyberbullying: A model cyberbullying policy that considers first amendment, due process, and fourth amendment challenges. Wake Forest L. Rev. 2011; 46: 641.
15. Cassim F. Formulating adequate legislation to address cyberbullying: Has the law kept pace with advancing technology? South African J Criminal Justice. 2013; 26: 1-20.
16. Tustin DH, Zulu GN, Basson A. Bullying among secondary school learners in South Africa with specific emphasis on cyberbullying. Child Abuse Research in South Africa. 2014; 15: 13-25.
17. Beger G, Sinha A, Pawelczyk K. South African mobile generation. Study on South African Young People on Mobiles. South Africa, UNICEF. 2012.
18. Chetty I, Basson A. Report on Internet usage and the exposure of pornography to learners in South African schools. Retrieved through. 2006.
19. Burgess-Proctor A, Patchin JW, Hinduja S. Cyberbullying and online harassment: Reconceptualizing the victimization of adolescent girls. Female crime victims: Reality reconsidered.2009; 153-175.
20. Ajzen I. The theory of planned behaviour. Organizational behaviour human decision processes. 1991; 50: 179-211.
21. Yazdanpanah M, Forouzani M. Application of the Theory of Planned Behaviour to predict Iranian students' intention to purchase organic food. J of Cleaner Production. 2015; 107: 342-352.
22. Kabaday? A. Br?dging Theory and Practices for Educational Sciences. 2021.
23. Constantine N, Curry K, Diaz M, et al. Factors associated with aggressive behaviour of rural middle school students. Eighth biennial meeting of the Society for Research on Adolescence, Chicago, IL 2000.
24. Doane AN, Pearson MR, Kelley ML. Predictors of cyberbullying perpetration among college students: An application of the theory of reasoned action. Computers in Human Behavior.2014; 36: 154-162.
25. Ajzen I. Martin Fishbein’s legacy: The reasoned action approach. The ANNALS of the American academy of political social science. 2012; 640: 11-27.
26. Ajzen I. From intentions to actions: A theory of planned behaviour. Action control. 1985; 11-39.
27. Merriam SB. Introduction to qualitative research. Qualitative research in practice: Examples for discussion and analysis. 2002; 1: 1-17.
28. Clandinin J, Connelly F. Narrative Inquiry San Francisco. Jossey-Bass. 2000.
29. Eisner EW. What the arts taught me about education. Art Education. 1991; 44: 10-19.
30. Shank G. Six alternatives to mixed methods in qualitative research. Qualitative research in psychol. 2008; 3: 346-356.
31. Nieuwenhuis J. Growing human rights and values in education. Van Schaik Publishers. 2007.
32. Creswell JW. Collecting qualitative data. Educational Research: Planning, Conducting and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research. Fourth ed. Boston: Pearson. 2012; 204: 35.
33. Leedy PD, Ormrod JE. Practical research. Pearson Custom Saddle River, NJ. 2005.
34. McMillan JH, Schumacher S. Research in education - Evidence-based inquiry – Pearson - 2013.
35. Maree K. First steps in research. Van Schaik Publishers. 2007.
36. Cohen R, Erez K, Havlinl S, Ben-Avraham D. Resilience of the internet to random breakdowns. The Structure and Dynamics of Networks. Princeton University Press. 2011; 507-509.
37. Thrasher RG, Andrew DP, Mahony DF. The Efficacy of the Theory of Reasoned Action to Explain Gambling Behavior in College Students. College Student Affairs Journal. 2007; 27: 57-75.
38. Hinduja S, Patchin JW. Bullying, cyberbullying, and suicide. Archives of suicide research. 2010; 14: 206-221.
39. Fisher BA, Fisher DR. Techniques of crime scene investigation. CRC Press. 2022.
40. Townsend L, Flisher AJ, Chikobvu P, et al. The relationship between bullying behaviours and high school dropout in Cape Town, South Africa. South African j psychol. 2008; 38: 21-32.
41. Myburgh C, Poggenpoel M. Meta-synthesis on learners’ experience of aggression in secondary schools in South Africa. South African J Edu. 2009; 29.
42. Farhangpour P, Mutshaeni HN, Maluleke C. Emotional and academic effects of cyberbullying on students in a rural high school in the Limpopo province, South Africa. South African Journal of Information Management. 2019; 21: 1-8.
43. Murphy AG. Dealing with bullying. Infobase Publishing. 2009.