The current coronavirus has intensified social exclusion which had progressed since the internet revolution in the 1970s. Morphing into the social media revolution at the turn of the millennium, social several offline activities have migrated offline. With this, the social media language of “selfie” aptly captures the near collapse of human sociality – leading to a complex form of human dissatisfaction with online surfing [1]. In Ghana and globally, long before the coronavirus, youngsters who were savvy in the use of the internet had reconfigured their sociality and re-align their social engagement as largely an online affair. As young people were already on the pathways of social media, the effect of pandemic-induced social distancing has had a huge impact on learning practices and education in Ghana. Given that education involves close communication between learners and teachers in the sharing of knowledge, the pandemic intensification of social isolationism has become pervasive on school campuses in Ghana. Thus, in this paper, I reflect on the re-formulation of the philosophy of education alongside the recuperation of the country’s Triple Heritage. The article will contribute to the broader discussion on the nexus between the pandemic and education.

My interest in writing about the impact of the state's introduction of digital technology as a critical intervention to mitigating the impact of the pandemic on education was a result of a surge in the “selfie” culture in Ghana. By “selfie” culture, I am referring to the scenario where human beings are becoming more self-centred as they spend time in the virtual world and less in the social world. Given my reading of the pre-pandemic social map of Ghana, especially in Accra, I picked an interest in finding out how the pandemic is affecting education in some communities in Accra. Accra is highly segmented socio-geographically, reflecting social status, so I carefully selected my respondents to reflect the segmentation of the city. I focused on Maamobi, one of the oldest urban slums (inner-Muslim community) in Accra that has been in existence since the early twentieth century. I also selected respondents from East Legon, one of the middle-income communities in Accra. My goal was to understand the cross-sectional effect of digitised education on pupils and students in these communities. As the lockdown rules were relaxed in Ghana towards the end of 2021, I deployed the ethnographic technique of in-depth interviews with pupils and students, their teachers/lecturers and parents/guardians to achieve the goal of this paper. I used pupils to refer to pre-university individuals, while student refers to those in the university. My study was designed qualitatively. I analysed the lived experiences of these students to propose the needed reforms to fashion new teaching approaches and reconfigure the philosophical foundation of education. I focused on the philosophical approach to learning and technological mediation in education because they have had a double-sided effect on pupils/students. I, therefore, designed an open-ended interview guide that focused on key thematic areas such as the reason for education, teaching methodology, and a new philosophical foundation of education. To incorporate ethical considerations in the research, I first spoke with the parents of learners under the age of 18 years for their consent. This is because, in Ghana, a child under the age of 18 years is treated as a minor. But depending on mere figures to determine age was also problematic. Because I interviewed university first-year students who were under the age of 18. So, instead of rigidly applying the quantitative logic of 18 years as a determinant of maturity, I also relied on social status, in the case of university students to formulate my ethical consideration. Since university students are treated in the public as socially autonomous young adults, I did not necessarily have to speak to their parents in collecting data. I used multiple non-probability sampling techniques to gather my respondents. This non-probability sampling included snowballing and purposive sampling techniques. With the snowball sampling approach, I identified persons within my circle to reach individuals who were not in my immediate social network or reach. Because I have been a resident of Maamobi since 1984, I readily identified all the categories of my respondents for the paper. For East Legon, I relied on friends in the community to reach my respondents. Through this approach, I interviewed 20 respondents – made up of 10 boys and 10 girls at the senior high schools and 10 male and 10 female young people from the tertiary institutions. But because of the stories these pupils and students shared, I rather sampled those that speak generally to their collective experiences. I also sampled a few of the responses of teachers, lecturers and parents. Interviews were recorded and transcribed manually and analysed in consideration of the objective of the study – the social impact of online teaching. The rest of the paper is dedicated to the philosophy of education and analyses. So much has been written about the philosophy of education [2]. But because my goal is not to rehash them, but rather to focus on the reason for this paper, and discuss the nexus between human sociology and the philosophy of education. I argue that recuperating the premodern social orientation of human beings will be crucial in reformulating educational philosophy to rebuild Ghana’s economy. The next section discusses the data collected from the field. I discuss the data based on how the social lives of pupils and students were affected. I conclude with a reflection on reformulating the philosophy of education, based on the idea of human ontological dignity – that every human being has worth that must be protected and served by a community.

Philosophy of Education and Human Conviviality

Education remains very critical in socialising people to live meaningfully and also contribute to human flourishing [3]. Through education, the older generation passes on the values and virtues as well as skills to the younger generation [4]. It is important in helping people to appreciate the nexus between sociality and sustainable development [5]. Nyamnjoh has developed his theory of incompleteness and conviviality and reflected on education as reorienting human beings away from hubris and conflicts [6]. He argued that human beings are socially incomplete and need to foster conviviality for the collective good of society. Historically, therefore, education had served as a means of socialisation of arming people with the values, virtues and skills to cherish group living and collaboration [7]. This role of education contributed to curtailing human ontological selfishness, a fact discussed in Charles Darwin’s classic, on the origin of species [8]. From the philosophical perspective of the survival of the fittest, Darwin provided an insight into human hubris as the anchor of their human quest for survival. On the contrary, the work of Alexis de Tocqueville, a contemporary of Darwin, both seeking to understand the world in the 1830s, stated that society prospered through the deflation of self [9]. Studying the role of religion in the formation of America’s civil society, de Tocqueville argued that religion, particularly Judeo-Christian values, informed the early Americans to appreciate selflessness. The interface between selflessness and human flourishing contributed to what later academics, including Robert Putnam, referred to as social capital [10]. Indeed, long before Darwin and de Tocqueville, Ibn Khaldun, the 15th Century Arab philosopher, had observed that societies thrive based on collectivism. Khaldun referred to this idea of sociality as asabiyah [11].  As one of the foremost thinkers in the area of modern sociology, Khaldun argued that selflessness, expressed in group consciousness, sense of shared purpose morphed into the formation of social solidarity. According to Ibn Khaldun, the progression of society from desert life to sedentary life also results in a linear progression of society from collectivism to individualism. Life in the desert is largely about individuals satisfying their basic needs, as opposed to the search for luxury. Thus, life in the desert is usually not encumbered by selfishness and human hubris. The sense of olidarity oriented people to work hard to overcome the various challenges that burden life and to ward off internal and external threats. Importantly, solidarity spurs people toward “civilized” or urban. It is here that asabiyah produces its antinomy. Civilized life takes people away from their mere dependence on basic needs to relish luxury. Luxury then leads to human hubris where people provincialize themselves as opposed to group solidarity. Apart from Ibn Khaldun, the French anthropologist, Emile Durkheim also made similar observation. Durkheim in his theory of mechanic solidarity and organic solidarity reflected on the complex nexus between individualism and collectivism in the establishment of the state [9]. Mechanic solidarity is the kind of asabiyah where individuals depend on one another in a natural state for subsistence. On the other hand, organic solidarity is a move away from the “primitive” state of interdependence for subsistence. Here, individuals honed their unique acquired skills and idiosyncrasies to complement one another for human flourishing. The balance in both mechanic and organic solidarities is helping in curating individuals from focusing on themselves alone, but also considering the large needs of society. Ibn Khaldun understood the difficulty in controlling individual propensity toward selfishness as the bane of civilized life. As rulers search for luxury, they impose taxes and other oppressive measures on the ruled to achieve their interests. Society, as it progresses from simple to complex significantly reconstructs human relationships along the pathways of instrumentalism. Human beings become a means to an end, instead of an end in them. Without going into details, Karl Marx referred to this as commodity fetishism [12]. Where the lack of any kind of social relationship between the labour and consumer results in the elevation of money as more important than human beings. The value of money takes precedence and weighs higher than human beings. To choreograph society from the challenges of human hubris, a new approach to the philosophy of education needs to be incorporated. My argument is informed by my reflections on the extent to which the coronavirus pandemic has affected the importance of sociogenic activities. Certainly, as I have mentioned above, before the pandemic, much of the human sociogenic activities, especially in the area of business transactions, were gradually moving online. Since business, formed historically around the market served as the heartland of group solidarity, the pre-pandemic migration of economic transactions affected human affective relations. The sporadic steep rise in basic safety materials such as hand sanitisers, which were hardly in short supply in Accra and Kumasi, evidenced the decline in the eeconomy of affection among several city dwellers.The impact of degeneration in social life has impacted the philosophy and direction of liberal education. Prior to the modern era, possibly since the 19th Century, liberal education, usually religion, philosophy, and astronomy, were directed at helping individuals to appreciate nature and human conviviality [13]. Often organised by religious institutions, individuals were trained not to develop their own “truths” but rather work along the conventional truth of society for human flourishing. This system may have had its own demerits, including the imperialistic tendency of mugging individual creativity. But on the whole, it kept society together and significantly curbed the spillovers of the sui generis of individuals that hardly supported sociogenic activities. Nevertheless, since the 19th Century, liberal education has progressed from individuals adapting the conventional truths of society to finding their own truths. Backed by the post-structural and postmodernism theories of western philosophers such as Jean-Paul and Sartre Michel Foucault [14]. Social institutions and conventional truths are framed as oppressive. More recently, the emphasis on education has been more about economic enhancement than human development for democratic governance [15]. With all this, as the pandemic-driven online activities have taken human beings further away from offline group activities, my paper will contribute to the discourse on recuperating society. The schools have become the main source of socialization in Ghana. Concurrently, I will focus on the need for the Ghanaian state to recuperate the indigenous wisdom of Ghana’s Triple Heritage to reformulate the philosophy of education. To put this in the context of my research data, I dedicate the next section to discussing the social experiences of Ghanaian pupils and students during the pandemic-driven online teachings. 

Covid-19 and online teaching: The experiences of Ghanaian pupils/students

Following the coronavirus pandemic, the government of Ghana, rightly, introduced online teaching. This was part of the global practice of ensuring that gaps were not created in the educational needs of pupils and students. Leveraging the media, radio and television, the countries Ministry of Education provided countrywide education to residents of the country. Aside from the traditional media of communication, radio and TV, the Ministry also invested in social media handles. This usually involved a merging of the two mediums of teaching where offline teaching in a studio was streamlined on social media handles, especially Facebook. Through the above, several students and pupils readily accessed online teaching without having the anxiety of being left behind. But a majority of those who accessed online teaching were city and town dwellers who had smartphones and computers. Several of the pupils in the countryside, who lacked smartphones hardly, had access to online education. The government, however, did well in ensuring that such children did not lag. The Minister of Education is reported to have collaborated with some IT industries to provide alternative means to such pupils. But on the whole, the Ghanaian state deployed the pervasiveness of both local and national radio stations and TV channels to reach most village dwellers. Since the liberalisation of Covid-19 social distancing and safety protocols towards the end of 2021, pupils and students were allowed to go back to school for an in-person class.But after a few months of lockdown and social immobility, several parents were concerned about their children contracting the virus. Given that several Ghanaians had not been vaccinated at the end of 2021, any report of a student contracting the virus resulted in a spike in panic and anger among parents. An example was the massing up of parents at the Accra Girls’ Senior High School, built by the country’s first president, Kwame Nkrumah in 1953, to take their children home.  The media's sensational reporting of such cases swelled the anxiety of parents and students.

In all this, the focus of my paper is the social impact of online teaching. Without limiting the psychological impact of the lockdown on pupils, I want to focus on the social aspect. The social aspect is as critical as the psychological because the human sense of gregariousness is needed to reconstruct Ghana’s post-Covid economy. Concomitantly, when I interviewed the pupils and students, I elicited the following as samples: Esi, a female second year Junior High School pupil at the Kotobabi 11 said as follows:

During the lockdown, I felt the world was collapsing on me. That I couldn’t see my friends and teachers was not good. There were times I felt the world was coming to an end and my schooling would shortly also end. But after depending on TV and smartphones for my education, there are times I feel I shouldn’t go to the class, but rather learn on my own. This is because, with the online teaching, we had great teachers with more expertise than several of my teachers.

Jones, a third-year visually impaired student at the University of Ghana said as follows:

The lockdown imposed on Accra wasn’t easy at all. Our lecturers migrated several of our courses online. But the challenges for me were two: First, the frequent power outages and second, the irregular internet supply. The erratic supply of energy and the internet were a challenge to me. But more importantly, I missed the company of my friends, including those who are not virtually impaired. In school, finding myself in the gathering of other visually impaired students assured me of a company that cared. Several people also offered unsolicited but needed help that made life more exciting. But now, even when we are back to school, the fear of a surge in Covid-19 has strained all social relations. People are rather more careful, so unlike pre-pandemic days when people were willing to help, these days, even when I am running into a ditch, because of taking a wrong step, I notice people only speak in giving instruction, instead of holding me. A lecturer at the University of Ghana, who pleaded anonymity said about his experiences as follows:

With the introduction of online teaching, the university succeeded in reducing the deficit that students would have suffered. Nevertheless, online teaching had its own impact. It is either student could not join because they had no smart gadgets or erratic energy and internet supply. But for me, that I couldn’t see the face of my students was worse. It was always as if I was speaking to a room of an empty audience. Sometimes, I ask questions or seek their opinion to be sure my students were following. But usually, for 5 minutes, I get no response. When I take the liberty to mention names on the screen of Zoom meetings, I realised several of them had joined for formality’s sake and left to do their own thing. The issue was also complicated by the fact that students couldn’t put on their video without disrupting the strength of their internet connectivity.

As I said, I collected several similar responses from my respondents, but upon transcription, I sampled the above for lack of space. Meanwhile, I will be referring to a few other respondents that are specific to the comments I make. All said, we could glean a few social impacts of the pandemic-induced online teaching on the student. First, social cohesion among students declined during the pandemic. As the visually impaired student said, because of the global and local imposition of lockdown rules, students returned to school with a new understanding of bodily contact. A lot of students have become more aware of the extent to which they got close to their friends than ever before. In the Ghanaian social landscape, social distancing is very crucial; it is gendered and also based on age and social class. Men and women, who are not kin-members, are expected to keep a reasonable distance when talking. A distance is also expected to be kept between those in authority and followers; similarly, a distance is kept among students, usually between seniors and juniors. For these reasons, moral issues are usually the determinants of social distancing. For example, a young man who keeps touching a young lady deliberately is considered immoral and sexually lustful. Two men who walk holding hands in public; or male and female adults who openly kiss in public all raised the moral concerns of several onlookers. Often, they are profiled as sexually perverse. Nevertheless, a social relationship is also based on distance. Shaking of hands, as opposed to hugging, is a common practice among Ghanaians. Among students, both men and women shake hands and snip when they meet or when driven into an exciting mood because of an ongoing conversation. Hugging, which is becoming more common, is treated as an elitist practice among students and middle-class constituencies. All this points to the issue of touching and social distance as part of the cultural practices of human beings [16]. Regrettably, the pandemic-informed physical distancing was profiled as social distancing which created problems for visually impaired students. In Ghana, the idea of a “whole” person is embodied in the person of a chief. As the representative of ancestors, the chief is expected to be physically and mentally sound and impeccable [17]. Any person who is blind, for example, can hardly be considered for chieftaincy. While the logic of physical and mental impeccability may have been informed by the role of premodern chiefs as warriors, the idea of physical “wholeness” has persisted in 21st Century Ghana. In 2013, the government of Ghana, under Mr John Dramani Mahama appointed Dr Henry Seidu Daanaa as the country’s first visually impaired Minister to mediate the affairs of chiefs. Unfortunately, some chiefs made recourse to the primordial idea of a “whole” person as a leader to protest the appointment of Dr Daanaa.  The issue nearly divided the chieftaincy front. This was a sad incident, but following the social impact of the pandemic, the experience of a visually impaired student, who feels socially isolated needs a relook at Ghana’s philosophy of education. Next is the issue of students exercising conviviality in learning? The basic school pupil, Esi, said she is losing interest in group learning. This issue needs to be taken seriously by the education sector. Historically and traditionally, children often learn in a group, sharing ideas and critiquing one another. In traditional societies, education was oriented along sociogenic pathways such that as children observed and participated in group activities, they learned the basic values of social life. Often, gathered around the fire when the full moon appeared, children participated in the communal activity of folklore, including storytelling. During such occasions, an elderly person tells a story to the children or the children engage in the social practice of benign form insults, called “mess mess” – which was also common when I was growing up in Accra in the 1980s. While insult has a complex and arbitrary role in social cohesion, among children, trading insults at one another as part of folklore was healthy for building social resilience and tolerance [18].  At universities, students form study groups to help one another. The transition from senior high school to the tertiary level could be very disruptive for several students. This is because, until the government of Ghana’s introduction of the junior secondary school concept in the 1980s, several people went to university relatively in their late adult lives. this implied that most of them may have had a stint in the world of work and formed a complex understanding of conviviality. They had also acquired enough experience to live as quasi-autonomous persons on university campuses.But since the 1980s and more recently at the turn of the millennium, several students pursue tertiary education while they are still in their early days of young adult life. Many of them, therefore, struggle to balance the independence they enjoy on university campuses and the pressures associated with academic work. At the University of Cape Coast (UCC) and the University of Ghana where I both schooled and worked as a teaching assistant, I observed that several students from the secondary schools who moved to the universities had enormous challenges adapting to those who had had pre-university work experience. I also observed that at the UCC, in particular, students who are often dismissed for non-academic performance are those directly from the secondary schools, as opposed to those who had gone through the college of education. Consequently, study groups are one of the key avenues for students to survive both the academic and the stressful life on campus. So, with students reorienting themselves away from study group practices, the consequences could be daring for not just academic performance but nation-building. Given the endemic problem of ethnocentric and religious fanaticism that continue to burden Ghana’s development, the collapse of social cohesion and conviviality could deepen nepotism and worsen the already social canker of corruption. Already, the eruption of social media in Ghana and the concurrent pervasiveness of smartphones since the turn of the millennium have undermined sociality. Social media has had multiple benefits to the Ghanaian and global human constituency. Young people have mobilised online to challenge political corruption and misgovernance. As to whether such online activities, which sometimes migrate to offline street demonstrations, have had the desired objective of altering systemic injustice does not take away social media as broadening the frontiers of communication. But the social media regime has contributed to the progressive evolution of human beings from Ibn Khaldun’s “desert” life to the virtual world of cyborgs. In the cyborg world, the language is “selfie” where Durkheim’s organic solidarity has progressed into extreme forms of self-sufficiency, self-determination, and self-motivation. The result has been the near collapse of temperance and measured tolerance in the world of imperfections. More so, it has deepened a cancel culture, where persons who disagree with others are cancelled and reduced to pariah. Parents are lecturers are all complaining about extreme forms of social exclusion and tension on the campuses. At the time of writing (July 2022), male students at the campuses of the University of Ghana and the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology had taken student rivalry to the point of extreme violence. In 2021, a senior high pupil who felt discontented with an examination he had written, berated in a recorded video the president of Ghana, Nana Addo Dankwa Akufu-Addo. While insulting leadership is not new even in indigenous governance social media has given visibility and wide broadcasting of what would have otherwise been limited to a particular space [19].

From the discussion, I argue that the responses I elicited from my study point to the need for recuperating human society through re-working the philosophy of education. Since education, both indigenous and western, is the basic means of socialisation, the philosophy of education must similarly emphasise human dignity. I mention education as the basic unit of recent socialisation in Ghana, because several families have outsourced the early nurturing and socialising of their children to the schools. As a result of the modern regime of work, urbanisation and short maternity leaves, several parents send their babies to school, soon after six months of birth of babies. For this reason, the schools and the state have become key institutions of socialising people. Indeed, religious institutions are also playing a role, but the schools are by far more influential, in my estimation, following the growing trend in boarding houses for even children of less than 18 years. Given that the issue of pandemic-driven social exclusion is about how individuals view human ontological dignity, even amid the pandemic, I want to incorporate Ghana’s Triple Heritage as a response. As part of constructing Ghana’s nationalism and patriotism for nation-building, the country’s first leader, Kwame Nkrumah [20] developed the philosophy of consciencism. Consciencism is a complex philosophy that would require a separate paper to elucidate. But for this purpose, I align with Nkrumah consciencism as the creative synthesis of Africa’s heritage, indigenous cultures, Islam and Christianity, for social cohesion. Ali Mazrui has referred to Nkrumah’s consciencism as Africa’s Triple Heritage. Deploying the Triple Heritage, I argue that the various religious traditions in Ghana enforce human dignity. I have already discussed Ibn Khaldun to significantly represent the Islamic position (though not theological). So, instead of repeating anything about Islam here, I will discuss indigenous cultures and Christianity. The indigenous cultures in Ghana, focusing on the Akan for convenience’s sake, are oriented towards the oneness of the human community. The Akan axiom says that “Every human being is a child of God.” With this, the Akan society has a nationwide shared philosophy that endorses the evolution of culture towards communalism and a sense of social cohesion. This was captured by the Ghanaian philosopher, Kwame Gyekey as follows:

Culture, thus, comes into being as a result of people looking for ways of dealing with the various problems that arise out of human beings living together in a society. The problem of how to survive collectively, and relate to and help one another leads to the formation of a communal way of life. The problem of regulating the behaviour of the members of society and bringing order, social harmony, stability and peace to the society leads to the establishment of legal and moral codes. The desire to express their creative talents and communicate their feelings leads to the creation of such art forms as music and dance forms. The way the people look at the universe may lead to questions about its origin and beliefs in some ultimate being (or beings) beyond the universe as worthy of reverence and worship: herein lies the beginning of religion, or religious practice. The ideas or beliefs of the people about death and the hereafter lead to the kind of ceremonial practices or funerals that are instituted for the dead [21].

The above shapes the Akan idea of communalism which according to Kwame Gyekye “immediately sees the human as inherently (intrinsically) a communal being, embedded in a context of social relationships and interdependence, never as an isolated, atomic individual” [22]. Reducing all this to Christianity, the Christian idea of God creating human beings in His image is also important for the philosophy of education. Since the 19th Century, racism has undermined the human family. Africans are considered ontologically and genetically inferior to whites, while in Ghana some ethnic groups have looked down on others as inferior. Consequently, the issue of how to live in a world of pluralities remains a major challenge. For this reason, I philosophize the Christian idea of God creating human beings in His image as an endorsement of the ontological dignity of every human being. While human beings may have different abilities, none is naturally superior to the other. In conclusion, I argue the incorporation of Ghana’s philosophy of education would help to overcome the debilitating effect of pandemic-driven social exclusion.

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