Parental level of education is a structured set of categories intended to group educational programmes in relation to gradations of learning experiences and the knowledge, skills and competencies which each programme is designed to impart. Levels of education are therefore a construct based on the assumption that education programmes can be grouped into an ordered series of categories. These categories represent broad steps of educational progression in terms of the complexity of educational content. The more advanced the programme, the higher the level of education. The ISCED 2011 classification consists of nine levels of education, namely: early childhood education (level 0), primary education (level 1), lower secondary education (level 2), upper secondary education (level 3), postsecondary non-tertiary education (level 4), short-cycle tertiary education (level 5), bachelor’s or equivalent level (level 6), master’s or equivalent level (level 7), doctor or equivalent level (level 8).

Parental level of education is a structured set of categories intended to group educational programmes in relation to gradations of learning experiences and the knowledge, skills and competencies which each programme is designed to impart. Levels of education are therefore a construct based on the assumption that education programmes can be grouped into an ordered series of categories. These categories represent broad steps of educational progression in terms of the complexity of educational content. The more advanced the programme, the higher the level of education. The ISCED 2011 classification consists of nine levels of education, namely: early childhood education (level 0), primary education (level 1), lower secondary education (level 2), upper secondary education (level 3), postsecondary non-tertiary education (level 4), short-cycle tertiary education (level 5), bachelor’s or equivalent level (level 6), master’s or equivalent level (level 7), doctor or equivalent level (level 8).

Argues that there is low level of education among the Mbororos, and this is caused primarily by their historical reliance on cattle-rearing and isolated, dispersed settlement patterns which have formed a key barrier to their inclusion within the Cameroonian educational society. This problem is particularly acute for Mbororo girls. Ndamba presupposes that, to tackle the root cause of this, the Mbororos Social and Cultural Development Association (MBOSCUDA), an organization founded in 1992 to protect the rights and culture of the Mbororos of Cameroon, has increasingly sought to create awareness through sensitization and provision of infrastructure in some of the most remote Mbororo settlements.

Regardless of this effort, the illiteracy rates among the Mbororos in Cameroon remain high. For instance, the illiteracy rate of Mbororo Fulani pastoralist women is around 98% according to data collected in 2011 by the “Forum des Femmes Autochtones du Carmeroun” (FFAC), known in English as the Cameroon Indigenous Women Forum. This percentage is almost three times higher than the average illiteracy rate of young women in Cameroon which was33% in 2007  according to the World Bank. Illiteracy contributes to the vulnerability of these women, who already suffer from discrimination, marginalization and who face difficulties in accessing social facilities such as schools or hospitals. Forced and early marriages (12-13-year-old girls), contribute to the illiteracy rate as well: girls are often forcefully taken out of school by their parents to get married to older men, often having to face polygamy and depend on their husbands as they do not work.

According to Bouba (2019), the crisis in the North West and South West Regions of Cameroon has been so challenging on the Mbororos pastoralists. This is partly because they live in dispersed and remote areas due to their economic activity of cattle herding. This has resulted in generalised attacks on the Mbororos pastoralists in the form of hostage taking, demands for ransoms, killings, maiming of cattle, looting and burning of their homes and properties. This has caused the displacement of about 2,500 Mbororo people from the two regions to other parts of the country and to Nigeria in the last quarter of the year. Over 1,000 of their cattle have been stolen and maimed. In the last quarter of 2018, 48 Mbororo pastoralists were killed by the separatist’s groups in the North West Region.

Mbororo children whose enrolment in schools had otherwise for the last decades been on the rise in the North-West Region has dropped considerably, thus frustrating the MBOSCUDA’s efforts in promoting education over the last two decades. Hence, the main area of action of the study includes making a policy for the alleviation of the poor living conditions of the Mbororos through income-generating activities as an alternative for cattle rearing. This will redirect them to access formal education. Against this backdrop, this study aims at providing empirical evidence on the impact of parental level of education on scholarisation in the Mbororo Communities of the North West and West Regions of Cameroon.

This study sets out to examine how parental level of education influences scholarisation in Mbororo Communities in the North West and West Regions of Cameroon.

From the general objective of the study, the following specific research objectives were formulated:

1. Investigate the extent to which parents with First School Leaving Certificate influence scholarisation in the Mbororo Communities in the two regions under study
2. Examine how parents with O/L and A/L Certificates influence scholarisation in the Mbororo Communities in the North West and West Regions of Cameroon.
3. Find out how parents with University degrees influence scholarisation in the Mbororo Communities in the regions under investigation.

The 1998 Law on education in Cameroon and the UN Millennium Development Goals on education adopted in the year 2000 recognize that education is a fundamental human right because education imparts knowledge and skills that enable people to realize their full potentials which help to enhance development goals like, the protection of indigenous people’s rights, land ownership, political integration and representation. It has been observed that, in spite of the importance of education and the fact that it has been made free from fees, the Mbororo Communities in Cameroon still suffer from under-scholarisation as many of their children do not go to school. Consequently, the Mbororos are subjected to the problems of under representation or non-representation and above all, they are stigmatized as people whose home is the bush.

The above statement of the problem can be broken down into both a general research question and specific research questions as follows:

How does parental level of education influence scholarisation in the Mbororo Communities in the North West and West Regions of Cameroon?

1. To what extent do parents with First School Leaving Certificate influence scholarisation in the Mbororo Communities in the North West and West Regions of Cameroon?
2. How do parents with O/L and A/L Certificates influence scholarisation in the Mbororo Communities in the two regions under study?
3. What impact do parents with University degrees have on scholarisation in the Mbororo Communities in the North West and West Regions of Cameroon?

From the statement of the problem and the research questions posed, the study came up with two set of hypotheses, namely, the general research hypothesis which states that, Parental level of education is not influencing scholarisation in the Mbororo Communities in the North West and West Regions of Cameroon.

The specific Research Hypotheses of this study are that:

• Parents with First School Leaving Certificate do not influence scholarisation in the Mbororo Communities in the North West and West Regions of Cameroon
• Parents with O/L and A/L Certificates influence scholarisation in the Mbororo Communities in the North West and West Regions of Cameroon
• Parents with University degrees have no influence on scholarisation in the Mbororo Communities in the North West and West Regions of Cameroon.

This study looks at parental level of education as the academic qualification of parents of a given community usually sanctioned with the award of certificates. This level of education is sub-classified into: Primary, Secondary and University, and usually the certificates acquired are: FSLC, O/L, A/L, Diploma and Degrees respectively and how the level of education attained by parents can affect scholarisation of the children in the Mbororo Communities in Cameroon.

Traditionally, family status variables such as parents' level of education have been regarded as predictors of children's academic achievement. Increasingly, research has suggested that, rather than having a direct association with children's academic achievement, parents' level of education is part of a larger constellation of psychological and sociological variables influencing children's school outcomes.

Attendant on higher levels of education may be access to resources such as income, time, energy and community contacts that allow for greater parental involvement in a child's education. Thus, the influence of parents' level of education on student outcomes might best be represented as a relationship mediated by interactions among status and process variables.

The literature also suggests that the level of education influences parents' knowledge, beliefs, values and goals about childrearing, so that a variety of parental behaviours are indirectly related to children's school performance. For example, higher levels of education may enhance parents' facility at becoming involved in their children's education and also enable parents to acquire and model social skills and problem-solving strategies conducive to children's school success. Thus, students whose parents have higher levels of education may have  more motivation  for learning, more positive ability beliefs, a stronger work orientation and they may use more effective learning strategies than children of parents with lower levels of education.

Dornbusch, Ritter, Lieberman, Roberts and Fraleigh (1987), purport that parental education level affects parenting style which, in turn, affects children's academic success. Dombrusch et al. added that families with higher educational levels are likely to be more permissive and less strict in parenting. According to Mullis and Jenkins (1990) and White (1982), parental education shows a strong correlation to students' academic achievement.

Parents who have advanced degrees have shown that they value education. Those who attained higher GPAs (Great Points Aggregate) in college often pursue graduate and doctoral degree programmes. Their past achievements become a benchmark for their children to follow as parents’ past pursuits in education may augment structural factors on intergenerational behaviours. Whether the parent’s GPA is tied to intelligence or disciplined study or both, these traits and behaviours are passed down to their children. Higher achieving parents foster those things that are important in their children and prioritize academic success. In contrast, those who graduated with a minimal degree generally do not have the financial means or aspirations to raise higher-achieving students.

Past studies have shown that first-generation college students (students who do not have a parent who attended college), often encounter major hurdles in post primary level. In comparison to students whose parent(s), attended college, first-generation students experience greater challenges to college access, college involvement, institutional connectedness, academic and social integration and degree completion. As such, first-generation students may be especially susceptible to personal doubts regarding their academic and motivational ability.

College-educated parents are typically more aware of the long-term benefits of acquiring a college degree and thus they share this information with their children. The higher the degree the parents have obtained, the greater the support the student will have from their parents to complete a similar academic goal. Parents with higher levels of education are also more likely to believe strongly in their abilities to help their children learn. A recent study exploring the relationships between level of parent education, parent self-efficacy, children's academic abilities and participation in a Head Start programme found out that the level of parents’ education and programme participation were significantly related to parental self-efficacy. In turn, parental self-efficacy beliefs significantly predicted children's academic abilities.

However, parents who have not attended college on the other hand tend to have less direct knowledge of the economic and social benefits of a post-secondary education. Thus, some of these parents may prefer that their children work rather than attend college. Students whose parents never attended college are sometimes faced with a difficult choice between fulfilling family expectations or obligations and pursuing of a degree.

Other researchers have debated the correlation of parents' educational attainment and students' academic achievement. Argued that parental education is directly related to styles of parenting and not student's academic performance. In their study, parents with lower educational attainment used coercive strategies for discipline which, in turn, predisposed their children to antisocial and abnormal behaviours. Such children performed poorly in the lower grades [1].

Found out that a mother and father's educational attainment link positively to parenting and adolescents' academic performance. Reported that well-educated mothers who have a predisposition to information about school are more likely than less educated mothers to discuss their child's school performance [2]. The same study showed that well-educated mothers' expectation levels are higher and they have more demands of academic achievement for their children.

Examined the difference between paternal and maternal influence on students' academic performance and educational goals and concluded that 6th, 8th, 10th grade students were greatly impacted by parental educational attainment. A parent's educational level influenced the realistic expectation and the ideal educational aspiration of the student. The results of this study found that paternal education had an effect only on students' educational expectation. Other studies indicate that a father's educational attainment has a direct bearing on children and a mother's attainment has an indirect effect.

Found out that fathers' educational attainment levels had a significant relationship with intelligence and achievement scores in American and Korean samples. Other significant results were that fathers who had higher educational levels had children who were more intelligent and higher achievers. Conclusions drawn from the study were that high levels of achievement are indicators of children who had highly educated fathers.

On the other hand, mothers' educational levels were not as influential to students' academic achievement. In fact, the results indicated that mothers' educational attainment levels did not affect students' academic achievement. On the other hand, the educational attainment indirectly affected the psychosocial maturity of adolescents and children of American and Korean samples. Well-educated mothers were more involved in their children's activities and their involvement led their students to be more self-reliant.

Although, cross-cultural study found out that mothers' educational attainment levels did not have an impact on student academic achievement, educational attainment indirectly affected the psychosocial maturity of the student, which in turn determined levels of achievement. Parents who attended college had children who also attended college. In a study of nearly 25,000 8th graders, found out that students whose parents only attained high school diplomas were five times more likely than their peers to drop out of high school by the 10th grade.

Noted that the influence of parental education and income has an impact on the college experience of their children [3,4]. Parents who have college degrees tend to have higher incomes and higher educational attainment and their children attend selective colleges more frequently than their first-generation college peers. Agree that parental educational attainment has long-term influences on student educational attainment. Students whose parents have degrees are often predisposed to environments of academic preparation and achievement which reinforce the retention of first-year college students [3,4].

The studies by also revealed that first-year academic performance is closely related to academic preparation, whereas retention to graduation is associated with friends and family. Parental education also affects standardized test scores [3,4]. According to The College Board (1992), Standard Aptitude Test (SAT), scores are strongly linked to parental educational levels. The results of this study indicated that the higher the academic degree earned by parents, the higher the students' test scores.

Other findings revealed the correlation between family income and test scores. Those students from families with high incomes and high educational attainment had the highest SAT scores. Noted that first-generation college students were likely to choose less selective colleges. Thus, the current researcher concludes that, because Mbororo children do not have parental collegiate experience to help them, either in preparing for college or in preparing for the academic challenges that lie ahead during their college career, they are not likely to succeed.

The findings of stated that parents who have at least a bachelor's degree are private teachers to their children and are better qualified in one or more subjects of knowledge than any of the teachers in the school. In such an environment, a student is less dependent on the ability of the teacher than a student with less educated parents. Information was gathered from both mother and father concerning highest educational attainment level. In this study, the father's education was used because the results showed a stronger statistical relationship than with the mother's educational level academic achievement.

Further argued that the father's education variable has the greatest effect on student success. Highly-educated parents provide more or higher-quality teaching input for their children. A child with less-educated parents does not have access to alternative skilled teaching inputs and the teacher is the most skilled teaching input to which the child has access regardless of the teacher's qualification. Other results also indicate that the father's educational level is the leading determinant of the high quality of the teaching input. Thus, children with well-educated parents are not as dependent on school inputs, nor do they spend much time studying outside of school. The correlations between study time and father's education and between study time and achievement test scores, are consistent with this finding. Less-educated parents tend to compensate by providing more help in terms of time, but the children of less-educated parents are still more dependent on the teacher as their primary skilled input.

Based on studies by the education of the mother affects many areas of the child's educational endeavours [2]. First, educated mothers are more likely to adopt parental investment strategies designed to maximize the life chances of the student such as their probability of survival, health and economic success.

Second, a well-educated mother might be more concerned and knowledgeable about obtaining educational credentials for her children by supervising their school attendance, transferring them to better schools and providing supplementary tutoring when necessary. Third, more educated women might be more likely to choose husbands who share some of the tendencies mentioned above. Their spouses may also be wealthier and, therefore, would be better able to provide the resources needed to attain their children's education goals. Finally, the more educated mother can provide her child with more useful forms of instruction, self-perception, encouragement, interaction and exposure, thus transmitting skills and shaping his or her psychological development in distinctive ways.

Found out that mothers who are well-educated affect the cognitive abilities of children more regardless of their occupation. When socioeconomics is compared to maternal education, it becomes a salient family determinant of students' scholastic and academic achievement. A mother's praise or verbal approval of a child's activity is linked directly to her schooling. Cited that maternal education has both a direct and indirect effect on student educational attainment. Found that educated mothers tend to manage their children's school career from elementary school through the high school years [2]. This becomes very important at the high school level, when the mother aids in the selection of college preparatory courses. The researcher also found that maternal education, more than employment, was related to the academic achievement of children.

Family characteristics such as disciplined study habits can have impact on students’ study skills. Study hours spent per week on college study and the desired degree can be strong predictors of college academic success. Students learn these homework habits at an early age, guided by the social learning theory set forth. According to social learning theory, parents who model disciplined habits construct an expectation for children to also perform those desired behaviours. Their children practice and learn the behaviours and the consequences of those behaviours.

Therefore, it is likely that parents who achieved the goal of an advanced degree tend to encourage disciplined study habits in their children. Children of parents who did not pursue higher education are less likely to have frequent observational learning opportunities to develop dedicated study habits. Parents who have succeeded in the academic arena have achieved an important personal goal. Success tends to reinforce positive behaviours as shown by B.F. Skinner’s (1971), work in behaviourism. Confidence is a product of environmental influences and mastery of certain cognitive skills engenders more self-confidence. Parents who did not find as much success and positive reinforcement in their own schooling would naturally withdraw from further academic challenges.

Social capital theory was propounded is important in this study in that, it is assumed that if the Mbororo family or parents lack socio- economic resources and have low education background, it becomes difficult for parents to provide a sustainable environment for their children’s schooling. Interactive social capital within the family deals with the scope and quality of a parent's relationship with their children which increases interest in learning and a possible advancement in education.  It includes parent’s nurturing activities such as helping children with their homework, discussing important school activities with them and expressing high educational aspirations for them. It is assumed that if parents are uneducated, they might not feel the importance of educating children. Those parents expect the ultimate benefit for their children in an early age and push them to work. Families with high educational expectations choose to spend more family time on activities that support learning for children.

This study adopted the quantitative approach in the data collection process and the research designs were survey research designs.

The population of this study consisted of all the Mbororo Communities living in the ten regions of Cameroon. The Mbororos in Cameroon are over 1.5million in number spread all over the national territory.

Table 1: Distribution of Mbororo population in Cameroon.

Source: MBOSCUDA et al., 2013

The target population of this study consisted of the Mbororo Communities in the North West and West Regions of Cameroon who make up over 331406 Mbororo inhabitants in the selected regions. The accessible population of the study are the Mbororos in the Sabga village with a population of 1,706 inhabitants and Didango village with a population of over 1157 inhabitants respectively giving a total of 2, 863. The sample population of this study included 294 Mbororo parents. The purposive sampling technique and the convenience sampling techniques were used in selecting the sample. This group of persons was selected because the study focused on the scholarisation of their communities. A questionnaire was the instrument used in collecting data for the study from the 12^th to the 19^th of May 2022.

The data collected from the field was first processed using EpiData software. During the process of data entering, participants’ responses were keyed in accordance with each of the test items with the demographic information and the test items coded with numbers to facilitate the data entering. Also, the questionnaires were assigned with serial numbers. The reason for coding and assigning each questionnaire a serial number was to ensure that on the data base, one should easily trace the individual responses of participants and to ease verification in areas of uncertainty if they arise.

After the data were completely entered for all the participants, the data base were exported to SPSS version 25 for further consistency, data range and validation checks with the purpose to first identify invalid codes. This was done with the aid of exploratory statistics. After the data were thoroughly checked for possible errors, the quantitative data were analyzed using the descriptive and inferential statistical tools. The descriptive statistical tools used are frequency count, percentages and multiple responses set which aimed at calculating the summary of findings for each variable where applicable for a quick overall comprehension of the findings for each research question.

In addition to the descriptive statistics, the Somer’s d-test was used to compute cross tabulation to find out how parent level of education, poverty, culture and religion is affecting the education of children in Mbororo Communities. The Somer’s d-test was preferred for the above cross tabulations over the Chi-Square test because it explained the direction and magnitude of association or relationship between two categorical variables which is important for the study which the Chi-Square test does not explain. However, in the case of government policies, the Chi-Square test was to find out the indicators listed to have significant effect of the education of Mbororo children. In addition to the Chi-Square test used, the Contingency Coefficient value was computed so as to explain the magnitude of the effect of government policies on the education of Mbororo children. Finally, the findings were presented using frequency distribution tables and thematic tables and all inferential statistics from cross tabulations are presented at 95% confidence interval.

is the calculated chi-square value and N is the sample size.

Methodical expression for calculating Somers’d test= D (C|R), =

\frac{P-Q}{n^{^}2-\sum(n-1^{^}2),}. Where  P=        number            of concordances, Q= number of discordances and \ n-1\), rowSums

For the conceptual component having X labeledX₁, X₂, X₃, …X_i indicators and the study having a sample size N, using a Likert Scale at four levels L1, L2 L3 and L4, MRS can be computed for each of the Likert scale levels following the steps described on the table below.

Table 2: Mathematical Expression used for Calculating Multiple Response Set.

Source: Fieldwork, 2021.

The numerical value for the effect size; rp ranges between -1 and +1 and determines the extent to which the predictors are associated to the criterion. The magnitudes of the effect sizes are; r_p = magnitude of the effect size; r_p> 0 implies positive association (effect size); r_p< 0 implies negative association (effect size); r_p = 0 implies no association (effect size); r_p = < 0.20 implies extremely low association (effect size); r_p = 0.20 – 0.39 implies low association (effect size); rs = 0.40 – 0.59 implies moderate association(effect size); rs = 0.60 – 0.79 implies high association (effect size); rs = 0.80 – 0.99 implies extremely high association (effect size) and 1.00 a perfect association/effect.

Demographic Characteristics of Respondents

Table 3: Distribuion of Respondents by Demographic Characteristics (Questionnaire Data).

Source: Fieldwork, 2021.

Among the 294 parents that responded to the questionnaires, 89.8% (264), are married while 10.2% (30), are single but do have children. Based on their occupation, 22.4% (66), are into business, 25.4% (75), are into cattle rearing, 9.2% (27), are drivers, 33.7% (99), are farmers, 1.0% (3), are lawyers and police officer, 2.0% (6), are security guard, 4.1% (12), are teachers and 1.0% (3), are traditional doctor.

Table 4: Distribution of Respondents by Demographic Characteristics (Focus Group Discussion).

n=22

Source: Fieldwork, 2021.

Among the 22 participants interviewed for the study, a majority 86.4% (19), were males and 13.6% (3), were females. More males were interviewed for the study because in the West Region, the culture prevents female from attending to visitors or going to public places. Conversely, in the North West Region, the composition of the focus group changed with a proportion of women attending. Though they attended, their role was noticed to mostly be the part of listeners as the men patronised the talking.

Results in table 5 show that, in both Didango and Sabga, respondents are homogenous in terms of religious denominations with all the members practicing Muslim religion. Therefore, all 22 participants were valid for the study.

Describing the respondent’s by occupation, 26.5% (9), were grazers, 23.5% (8), were traders, 11.8% (4), of equal proportion were famers, skilled labourers, 5.9% (2), were semi-skilled and 2.9% (1), was a student. Finally, describing the participants interview by marital status, 54.5% (12), are married and 45.5% (10), are single.

Table 5: Parents Level of Education.

Source: Fieldwork, 2021.

Figure 1: Parents Level of Education.

Source: Fieldwork, 2021.

Based on parental level of education, a majority of them 72.4% (213), has FSLC as their highest educational certificate, 18.4 (54), has GCE Ordinary level, 5.1 % (15), has GCE Advanced level, 1.0% (3), has a Master’s Degree, another 1.0% (3), has a PhD and 2.0% (6), of respondents have not received any formal training.

Table 6: Association between Parents Level of Education and Children’s Scholarisation.

Somers' d test value = -0.453, p-value =0.000

Source: Fieldwork, 2021

Statistically, findings show that there is a significant and negative relationship between parent level of education and children scholarisation (Somer’s d value= -0.467, p-value =0.000< 0.05), whereby a majority of the parents who have not received any formal training (100%), followed by parents who are in possession of FSLC (94.4%) and GCE ordinary level (83.3%) do not send their children to school, while all parents with GCE advanced level (100%), Master’s Degree (100%) and PhD (100%) do send their children to school. Based on this, the hypothesis above that states parental level of education is not affecting scholarisation in selected Mbororo Communities in Cameroon was rejected.

Evidence from the   findings of the study indicates that parental level of education affects scholarisation of the Mbororos. Parental level of education was viewed as the academic qualification achieved by parents during schooling and the certificates acquired after attaining this level. It is worth noting that, schooling requires that learners get home support from parents to push through schooling successfully, but majority of the Mbororo parents are predominantly holders of low academic qualification (FSLC) and some do not even have any academic qualification. These parents with low educational attainment do not encourage the education of their children but oblige them to follow their footsteps to drop out from school and do farming and grazing bringing about the under-scholarisation of the Mbororo Communities in Cameroon.

Findings of the study affirm who carried out a similar study and found out that parental education shows a strong correlation to students' academic achievement. To them, parents who have advanced degrees have shown that they value education. Those who attained higher GPAs in colleges often pursue graduate and doctoral degrees. Their past achievements become a benchmark for their children to follow as parents’ past pursuits in education may augment structural factors on intergenerational behaviours. Whether the parent’s GPA is tied to intelligence or disciplined study or both, these traits and behaviours are passed down to their children. Higher achieving parents foster those things that are important in their children and prioritize academic success. In contrast, those who graduated with a minimal degree generally do not have the financial means or aspirations to raise higher-achieving students.

Again, findings of the study contradict who argued that parental education is directly related to styles of parenting and not student's academic performance [1]. In their study, parents with lower educational attainment used coercive strategies for discipline which, in turn, predisposed their children to antisocial and abnormal behaviours. Such children performed poorly in the lower grades. Researchers have debated the correlation of parents' educational attainment and students' academic achievement.

However, parents who have not attended college on the other hand, tend to have less direct knowledge of the economic and social benefits of a post-secondary education. Thus, some of these parents may prefer that their children work rather than attend college. Students whose parents never attended college are sometimes faced with a difficult choice between fulfilling family expectations or obligations and pursuing of a degree.

The study had as first specific objective to investigate how parental level of education affects Scholarisation in selected Mbororo Communities in Cameroon. Based on the above findings, parental level of education affects Scholarisation of the Mbororos. Majority of the respondents opined that the Mbororo Parents have FSLC as their highest level of education and they do not send their children to school because their own parents too did not send them to continue schooling, but to focus on cattle-rearing which to them is hereditary.

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