Conceptualising Bilingual Education

Bilingual education relates to language planning because it operates mainly in most bilingual and multilingual countries. It is, basically, a means of educating marginalised language groups in particular. In addition, this form of education facilitates second language learning as it serves as a means of teaching language and content simultaneously. Conceptualising the term ‘bilingualism’ tends to be a difficult task for various scholars [1]. The rationale behind this opinion relates to the fact that there are four basic language skills one has to exhibit to be fully considered as a competent bilingual. These skills are listening, speaking, reading, and writing. This is why Bourget talks about the idea of ‘balanced bilingualism’. The term “balanced bilinguals”, as he asserts, refers to learners whose proficiency in two languages are equally well developed. The term also refers to biliteracy which relates to one’s ability to exhibit proficiency in two languages in terms of reading and writing. To meet the requirements of being a balanced bilingual in practical terms, a learner must perfectly comprehend instruction in two languages and be able to excel in any other academic task in both languages. Another dimension of the definition offered by [2]. views bilingualism as a way of using the child’s L1 to facilitate the learning of a foreign language. Instruction in the child’s L1 offers information, which makes the child comprehend a lesson as it is introduced in the foreign language. The acquisition of first-language literacy also speeds up the development of second-language literacy [3]. In light of the above definitions, bilingual education could simply be conceptualise as a system of education that offers learners enough instruction in their L1. This means that students in this kind of education pass through stages where they are taught the content subject in a language that is not foreign or in a language they are very familiar with. In transitional bilingual education, learning to read and write are mostly aided by instruction in learners’ L1 especially at the primary level of education. However, there is always a gradual transition into English-only instruction as learners graduate to JHS level. English or any other foreign language with official status in a given educational system is treated as a subject of study. Other content courses could be taught in English, but ideally, in the transitional model, the L1 of learners is often used in the early stages of education.

Bilingual Education in Ghana

In the Ghanaian educational system, transitional bilingual education has been practised since the days of the British colonial government. It consists of the early-exit and the late-exit bilingual education. Most African countries, including Ghana, practise transitional bilingual education. In this model of bilingual education, children are educated in their mother language before they are thought to be sufficiently proficient in the dominant language in order to progress in mainstream schooling. The purpose of this programme to assimilate, to slow down submersion, and to continuously promote majority language usage in class. Ultimately, it aims at lessening the use of the mother tongue of learners as instructional language as they ascends the academic ladder. As mention earlier, the transitional model of bilingual education comes in the form of ‘early-exit’ where there is an early transition into English-based education approximately at the fourth grade, or the ‘late-exit’ model where native language instruction remains throughout elementary school to ensure the mastery of reading and content knowledge before transition [4]. On the contrary, there are other forms such as paired bilingual education which offers learners the opportunity to have lessons in both native and foreign language at different periods within a day. While the former allows about two years of instruction in the mother tongue of learners, the latter allows 40% of instruction in the mother language and the rest in a foreign language till the 6^th grade. Ultimately, teachers operating under this system of schooling must be bilinguals for the model to be successful. Usually, these bilinguals may also work as special assistance for teachers who need help in order to deal with issues of language barrier in the classroom. Generally, transfer of knowledge has been the major hypothesis often tested in studies relating to bilingual education. Most studies on bilingual education highly recommend content teaching in language courses. With respect to students’ academic performance, bilingual education proves to be one of the most effective means of child development. Nonetheless, achieving excellence in education is also contingent on another variable; second language competency. It is therefore not surprising that when students’ performance in the second language does not meet the requisite standards, they may be affected adversely, especially in non-language subjects. Currently, the early-exit transitional model of bilingual education has been legitimised in the Ghanaian educational system. Given the nature of this model, it is mandatory that Ghanaian languages be used at the lower level of primary education (P1-P3) and English language from the upper level of primary education (P4-P6) to the tertiary level [5]. However, from a close observations in some Junior High Schools (JHS) in the Sunyani West District, it appears that most of the teachers do not comply with the implementation plan of the early-exit model of bilingual education as required by Language in Education policy of Ghana. The situation is not peculiar to the aforementioned schools only. Evidence from the reviewed literature also suggest that most teachers in Ghana keep using Ghanaian language as the language of instruction even at the JHS level despite the clearly laid down plan for implementation. Most of the studies available focus mainly on evaluating the English-only policy implementation without delving into the rationale behind the use of Ghanaian languages and its corresponding consequences. For instance, [6]. evaluated the use of English language as LOI in Asafo Catholic JHS in Sefwi, Western North region. Out of his assessment of the policy implementation, he found that teachers do not comply with the implementation plan of the language policy. It was revealed that using English as the LOI at the JHS level was rare in most lessons. This substantiates the fact that teachers in most JHSs use the native languages as instructional language as against what the policy stipulates. Similarly, [7] investigated the use of English in public schools in the Gomoa East District, Central region of Ghana. In his investigation, he also reiterated the fact that the English-only policy is not being adhered to as required. The findings of these studies revealed that ineffective supervision of the policy, over-reliance on local languages as LOI, environment and location of schools, lack of in-service training for teachers, lack of requisite teaching and learning materials, and others contributed to the lack of proper implementation of the English-only policy. Against this backdrop, this study seeks to investigate the rationale behind this violation of the early-exit policy, and also find out whether or not the retention Ghanaian language as LOI at the JHS level affects teaching and learning in any way. It also seeks to examine students’ reaction toward the retention of their mother language at the JHS level.

Research Questions

• What factors account for the use of Twi as LOI in the JHS level?
• How does the use of Twi as the LOI affect teaching and learning at the JHS level?
• How do students react to the use of Twi as the LOI at the JHS level?

Related Literature

This study is situated in the linguistic interdependence theory of Cummins.

Linguistic Interdependence Theory

This theory was propounded by [8] He hypothesized, that the growth of linguistic skills happens at two main levels. These levels, according to Cline and Fredrickson (1996), are the Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (BICS) and Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP). He explained that the BICS applies to more apparent language systems, such as grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation. These linguistic processes are the surface characteristics of the first and second languages. It is something that can be related to the tips of an iceberg. BICS is the fundamental capacity to listen and talk in order to communicate your thoughts. It is the daily language that we use to interact with our families and neighbours. Most language students get this proficiency within six months to two years, and this will be an easier process if their first language is closer to English, or if they also have the opportunity to communicate with native speakers.  On the contrary, the CALP concerns a less apparent, technical, and semantic elements of second-language learning [8]. The CALP could be equated to the basis of the iceberg. It is a formal academic language used in higher-level education. This may include technical or analytical vocabulary and figurative words, as well as the form of words used in research, logical thought, and other cognitive academic processes. It has been likened to the basis of the iceberg because we only use this kind of language proficiency in an academic context, but not in casual conversations. If a second language learner already has CALP in his/her L1, this previous experience will allow the learner to progress with the same idea in the new language. For example, the meaning of ‘nouns’ may not vary significantly across languages, hence a learner who has the CALP in his language may easily get the understanding of ‘nouns’ in the second language.  The CALP takes 5-7 years to build in the second-language learner, but it may take more time if the language learner does not have CALP in his first language [9] The underlying belief in this theory is that when the learner understands a concept very well in the native language, he/she can easily transfer this knowledge into the second language. This interaction between the student’s native language and a second language is what Cummins (ibid) terms the Common Underlying Proficiency (CUP). The implication of this model is that the learner in the bilingual system may acquire basic proficiency earlier. This, according to Cummins, does not provide the student with enough grounds to engage in a higher-level academic task unless he/she develops the CALP.  In addition, the CALP requires enough time to develop. To effectively develop the CALP, Cummins asserts that a foreign language learner needs to engage in meaningful communications with native or more proficient users of a particular language for five to seven years. Therefore, in the classroom setting, it must not be assumed that a student who can speak and understand English has the requisite English language proficiency for learning.

Factors That Accounts for the Use of the Child’s L1 as LOI

In Ghana, related studies have brought forth some of the justifications teachers give for the use of L1 as the LOI in primary schools. A notable study was conducted by [10]. In her survey that sought to find out teachers’ perceived classroom language use and language preference’, she found out that minority of basic school teachers ( 14%) in Ashanti, Eastern, Central, Volta, Western, and Greater Accra region use the mother tongue exclusively during teaching and learning. Teachers who use the mother tongue explained that it enables their students to learn better from the known to the unknown, facilitates a better understanding of concepts, and ensures active participation in lessons. Those who favour code-switching credit that strategy for taking care of problems posed by both mother tongue and the English language. Code-switching, according to these teachers, makes it easy for transfer of information and better explanation of concepts, thus ensuring effective ‘teaching and learning. Conversely, majority of teachers (63%) who used English only were of the view that all materials that have been provided to support teaching and learning have been written in English. It would, therefore, be inappropriate to use the Ghanaian language as the instructional language. They also identified the unavailability of teaching and learning resources in the mother tongue as one of the causes of the difficulty in using the L1. They finally indicated that the multilingual nature of classes and earlier immersion in English instruction, which eventually contribute to proficiency, compel them to use English language only as the LOI.  Although her study brought out circumstances that call for the use of the L1 as LOI, it did not address the issue from the viewpoint of the students. Hence, whether or not the students had some issues to bring forth remains a hanging question in her study. Similarly, [11,12] conducted a case study research that focused on finding out factors that has always militated against the successful implementation of the English-only policy in the upper level of basic education. The findings of this study reveal factors such as low proficiency in English, the monolingual nature of the classrooms, the desire to use Ghanaian language in teaching, and lack of enforcement of the language policy as the key factors that militate against the implementation of the English-only policy in the Upper level of basic education. Though this study produced findings on factors that militate against the successful implementation of the English-only policy, it falls short of revealing findings relating to the probable implications it has on the teaching and learning process. Therefore, by extension, it is important to find out whether a shift from the implementation plan of the language policy could affect teaching and learning.

The effect of LOI on teaching and learning

Studies have revealed that the success of teaching and learning is somewhat contingent on LOI. Thus, there is a tendency that successful learning could be ensured if the instructional language is that which the learners understand most. The findings of [13] in a longitudinal survey on LOI and student test scores in South African primary schools lend credence to the assertion above. The findings of the study indicated a positive association between instruction at the early grades of education and learners academic performance in subsequent grade levels. Similarly, in a research with a case study approach, [14] looked at striking issues relating to the transition of Grade 4 students to English-only as a means of education in schools situated in remote communities in South Africa.  Data for this study were obtained through interviews, observations, document analysis, and field notes. Three grade 3 classes and their students, as well as grade 4 learners and teachers teaching SiSwati, English, and Mathematics, were chosen as participants in the study by means of the purposive sampling method. The results of this study show that the difficulty with respect to this transition is not English per se, but rather an inadequate native language foundation and the standard of teaching offered. The age of the learners at the time of this transition also plays a major role because it impacts their ability to move to another language. It was, thus, recommended that the age of entry in Grade 1 should be seven years and that the real transfer time should be extended In Tanzania, [15] conducted a study on LOI and its effect on the standard of Secondary School education in Morogoro region. This research aimed at evaluating the views of teachers, students, and parents on the consequences of LOI on the comprehension of learners during teacher-student engagement in the classroom. As part of the objectives of the research, they also purported to determine whether or not teachers, students, and parents favoured a different language (rather than English) to be used as a means of instruction in Tanzanian secondary schools. The study report indicated that when the instruction was in the English language, 69.7% of the learners failed to comprehend the lesson. To buttress this, 78.9% of teachers in this school reported that English as LOI was an impediment to students’ academic success because majority of students fail to grasp concepts properly in English language. Moreover, 71.4% were of the view that this situation could only be remedied if teachers make a complementary use of both Swahili and English to engage them.  In a similar study, [16] used a case study research design to examine how LOI could affect teacher-student interaction in the classroom in some public and private schools in Shinyanga Municipality of Tanzania. Data were gathered through classroom observations, document reviews, and in-depth interviews with selected students, teachers, and head-teachers. The results suggest that the use of a foreign language (English) as LOI has a negative effect on the classroom experiences of students and teachers. It was reported in the study that teachers and students were not fluent in using English as LOI. Students and teachers in English middle schools face challenges, discomfort, and stress in the teaching and learning process. The lack of involvement of students in teaching and learning was also noted in the study. It was also found that the language choice of teachers affected their pedagogical approach to teaching because it was found that there was a frequent use of teacher-centred methods in the schools that adopted English compared to the schools that adopted Kiswahili as the instructional language.  In schools where Kiswahili was adopted as the instructional language, participation of students in lessons was good and the teachers used a participatory teaching method (learner-centered approach) during lesson. In addition, it was reported that students understood and engaged more effectively when taught in a familiar language than when taught in a non-familiar language, as suggested by several intellectuals and scholars in the same field of study. In addition, [17] conducted a case study to assess the language choice of Malaysian students in learning mathematics and science. Among other things, the study revealed that coping with the content of both mathematics and science became challenging when the LOI was English. As a result, it was reported that most of these students resorted to the use of their native language as a medium of communication among their peers when engaging in discussions of topics. Thus, students with weak backgrounds in the English language preferred the use of Bahasa Malaysia in their class or group discussions. Furthermore, this study revealed that some students usually request for translation from English to Bahasa Malaysia when confronted with complicated key terms and difficult questions. Students recommended that in order to enhance students’ ability to understand content whenever English is a challenge, they can take English proficiency classes, use bilingual dictionaries, use bilingual mathematical dictionaries, and do more tests and simulations. It can be concluded that students relatively do not choose to use English for examination due to examination anxiety induced by language barriers. In a similar that sought to find out teachers’ and students’ perceptions toward the utilization of L1 in English classrooms in Iranian Institutes, [18] used the mixed-method research approach with the use of questionnaires and interviews as data collection instruments. His findings revealed that students in all language levels in Iranian Institutes expressed a positive reaction to the use of the first language in the second language classroom

Students Reactions to English-only Instruction

English has been adopted as an official LOI in Ghana. It is the official and the sole LOI proposed by the language in education policy to be used from the upper primary level of basic education to the tertiary level [11]. As the English language is the language of the curriculum in the secondary and tertiary level of education in Ghana, Ghanaian languages are to be studied as a subject. The introduction of the English-only instruction policy at the upper level of primary education in Ghana was aimed at ensuring that learners are functionally literate, numerate, and also possess reading fluency upon completion of primary education [19]. Though the English language can be considered a widely used LOI in most schools in Ghana, researchers have argued that the use of the English language has a significant effect on classroom practices. With regards to how students react to the use of the English language as the LOI in Ghana, [20], found in a study that sought to find the implications of learning mathematics through English that students found it extremely challenging to express whatever ideas they had in the English language. This means that imposing the English language medium of instruction was a hindrance to classroom effectiveness. Hence, they assert that the use of the Ghanaian language at the basic level was rather beneficial to mathematics lessons. This study, though relevant, only focuses on the teaching and learning of mathematics to the neglect of the teaching and learning of other subjects. It is therefore imperative to extend this study to include all other subjects. In addition, the study did not focus on the use of Ghanaian language, and therefore, least was said on how students react to instruction in Ghanaian language medium. Despite various studies [21]; Opoku Amankwa, ; Mwinsheike, 2009) throwing more light on the academic benefits of using the various Ghanaian language as means of enhancing student learning, other studies also points fingers on the overuse of the native languages as the cause of low academic standards of students in examination [21-23]. However, these studies refused to capture other variables such as motivational supports from government, parents, and other concerned stakeholders that may have had an influence on students’ academic performance in their research.

The study employed an explanatory case study research design which aims at gaining enough information from the case of one or two organisations. The study was conducted in the Sunyani West District. Two schools in the district were selected. These schools are Odumase Roman Catholic JHS which is located in Odumase, and Tainso Roman Catholic JHS which is also located in Tainso. The population of the study is 213, including teachers and students. A consultation with the headmaster of the Tainso Roman Catholic Junior High Schools (JHS) revealed that there were 57 students, 3 teachers in the Tainso R/C JHS. Also, the headmaster of the Odumase Roman Catholic Junior High School showed that there are a total of 150 students, 3 teachers in the Odumase Roman Catholic Junior High School. Purposive sampling technique was used to select participants for this study. In totality, 6 teachers, and 18 students were purposively selected to respond to the interview questions. Observations, interviews, and document analysis were used as data collection procedure with the aid of an observation guide and a semi-structured interview guide. Data was transcribed, translated, and analysed using the thematic analysis procedure. The thematic data analysis procedure was used to analyse and discuss the findings, relating them to the theories used and the empirical literature related to the study.

This section of the study is composed of 2 sections. The first section presents the background data on respondents while the second section presents and discusses the findings of the study, draws conclusions, and offer recommendations for concerned stakeholders to take into consideration. 

Background Characteristics of Respondents

In all, six teachers were interviewed. Three of these teachers teach in the Tainso Roman Catholic Junior High school, while the others were teachers in the Odumase Roman Catholic JHS. In the Tainso Roman Catholic JHS, all the teachers hold Diploma in education certificate. In terms of teaching experience, all teachers in the Tainso RC JHS have taught for 5 years. However, in Odumase Roman Catholic JHS, Teacher 4, 5, and 6 were all Degree holders. Teacher 4 reported 22 years of teaching experience while Teacher 5 and Teacher 6 reported having 10 and 12 years of teaching experience respectively. In each school, 6 students took part in the focus group discussion. In all, 18 students (9 from each school) took part in the focus group interviews. The average age of these students is 14.

This section discusses the major findings that emerged from the data. The findings have been categorised under the five research questions of the study.

What factors account for the use of Twi as the LOI at the JHS level?

The purpose of this research question was to find out reasons for using Twi as the instructional language in JHS classrooms. The themes that emerged from the interview data indicated that comprehension of lessons, English language proficiency of teachers and students, and teachers’ ability to express themselves, were the major factors that compelled the adoption of Twi as the LOI. As argued by all the teachers who were interviewed, the core mandate of every teacher is to ensure that knowledge has been acquired by the students. It is, therefore, believed that the worth of the teacher is measured by his ability to achieve successful student learning. Teachers were of the view that to ensure that students understand what is being taught, the language which he understands most must be used to teach. When asked to give a reason for using Twi as the LOI despite the clearly spelt out plan for implementing the English-only policy at the JHS level, Teacher 1 stated that: Woahu sε mmara deε, yεhyε mmara na sε woanni so a, εno paa deε nka εyε sε biribi w? h? a yεde yε wo, anaasε asotwe bi w? h? a yεde ma wo but εno na mereka sε.. woahu sε adesua no, at the end of the lesson no, deε εhia ne sε akwadaa no ate deε woreka no ase. Nti seesei no εw? sε yεdi mmara no so deε, na woahunu sε εduru baabi na yεka sε yεredi mmara no so a, adeε no a worekyerε no, nkwadaa no nte hwee. Sε woahunu sεdeε εsi teε no.  Sε woakyerε nkwadaa no adeε, woause Bor?fo no wora wora wora.. wo deε wonim sε woakyerε no adeε, na wobεwie na wante aseε a, woahu sε na ak? ak?yε waste of time. εhεε!! Nti nka mmara no deε εnyε sε nka yεbεbu so.. me a mete ha, me deε nka mempε sε mεbu so na mmom sεdeε εbεyε a akwadaa no bεte adeε no ase no nti na εbεma no ak?ba no saa Author’s Translation: As we all know, when you violate a policy, the best way to be dealt with is to be punished or you must be forced to face any consequences that go with violation of a policy, but as I was saying, the most important aspect of teaching is the students’ability to understand whatever is being taught at the end of the lesson. Right now, there is an operating policy which we are expected to implement accordingly. However, in most cases, if we decide to adhere strictly to the implementation of the policy, the students may not understand anything that is being taught. So I think violating the policy is not a good idea. In my opinion, I wouldn’t support that but it happens that way to help the students to comprehend lessons. This utterance was affirmed by Teacher 4 of Odumase Roman Catholic JHS as he posits that; Yes, at times if you are teaching and you find out that they are not getting what you are saying, you have to break it down to them. You go to their level so that they can grasp what you want to talk about. Because it is better for them to understand than using English throughout and at the end of the day they are not getting what you are saying. So at times, we chip in the local language so that it can go down well with them. Teacher 3 also added that:  I will say that when, from the look of the students’ faces, you can see that some of them don’t understand. So you have to explain it with their own language; that is the Twi language that they can understand better.  These reasons provided are evidence that teachers in these schools do not adhere to the implementation of the policy to ensure the students get a better understanding of every lesson. These findings are in line with the findings of Amua-Sekyi (2005) and Owu-Ewie and Eshun (2015). Contrary to the findings of Owu-Ewie and Eshun (ibid) however, respondents were not in concordance with the fact that they use Twi as the LOI  because of lack of monitoring of the use of the English language as the LOI. They rather assert that the most important element of education is the students’ ability to demonstrate an understanding of what they have been taught. For this reason, they would rather violate the policy to facilitate learning. As a justification for the breach of the policy, it was reported that for the best interest of the students, it would be problematic to adhere strictly to the Language in Education Policy implementation, because if teachers fail to use Twi frequently as the main instructional language, the students may not comprehend the lessons. Aside from students’ comprehension of lessons, another striking issue that has left teachers in the rural areas with no option other than using Twi as the LOI stems out of the proficiency of the students and the teachers who teach the English language. In support of the findings of Amua-Sekyi (ibid) and Amua-Sekyi and Nti (2015), teachers in Tainso R/C also reported that their English proficiency and that of their students is not high enough to aid the English-only instruction. Hence, to avoid any difficulty with the use of the English language, they use the Twi language as the medium of instruction. The statement of a teacher below substantiates this claim. Mede Twi no kyerε adeε a, εma metumi kyerεkyerε me nsεm mu yie. Wode Bor?fo no k? h? bebree a, even wo ara koraa no, wo Tikyani no koraa no εt? da bi a εyε a na wo-finde no difficult to express yourself εw? some topics bi a εw? Bor?fo no mu. Sε Twi no ba mu kakra a, wotumi kyerεkyerε mu k? anim ma akwadaa no ?nya nteaseε εw? deε woreka no ankasa ankasa.

Author’s Translation: When I use Twi as the instructional language, I explain concepts very well. But if you always use English as the instructional language, you [the teacher] may find it very difficult expressing yourself on certain topics. However, when you use Twi, you would be able to explain concepts clearly to the understanding of the students. To buttress this point, Teacher 1 said that there could be instances where it would be extremely difficult to explain complex concepts in the English language. As a result, it would be much easier to explain such points in the Twi language. This is how he puts it: Me ankasa deε, mekyerε science. Woahu sε science nso deε εyε a na normally no, w?n terms no bebree w? h? a εnhyε da nyε Bor?fo. Nti sε εk?ba sε terms no so so saa na sε akwadaa no ?ntee bi da a.... εda no sei na mereka ‘Photosynthesis’...... nti sε wob? biribi kεseε sei na sε woamfa mma Twi kakra, na woka sε woreyε no Bor?fo Bor?fo bebree a, woahu sε akwadaa no koraa, deε woreka no koraa no, ?nte aseε.. ahaaa.. nti εyε a na some terms bi ne saa ayi bi a εwow? wow? some subject area bi nti no εduru baabi a wouse Twi no a, εma wo koraa Tikyani no, wotumi expresse wo ho kama εma adekyerε no k? n’anim

Author’s Translation: I teach science, and there are some complex concepts in science which are not necessarily English terms. The Students may not be familiar with some of these terms. For instance, I once made mention of ‘Photosynthesis’. Students may not understand certain terms like these if you adhere so much to English-only instruction... So I agree to the fact that there are so many concepts in different subject areas that a Teacher can easily explain when he uses Twi as the instructional language. This teacher believes that his proficiency in the English language is low and does not allow him to express himself when explaining complex concepts. An issue of concern is that even if the teachers are proficient enough to use the English language only, that of the students remain questionable. This is a situation the teachers ascribe to limited exposure and use of the English language outside the classroom. Commenting on this, a teacher reveals that, Yεmfa baabi a mew? yi εntoto kuro bi te sε Kumasi, Sunyani kurom anaa Nkran kurom. Woahu sε εh? no sε akwadaa bi nam a, da biara  ?manfo? ka Bor?fo ma no te bi, ?hwε TV, ?tie radio εne saa nno?ma no. εna εno nso koraa no, mennyε sure sε tikyani no bεuse Bor?fo nko ara na de akyerε nkwadaa no adeε, menyε sure

Author’s Translation: Let’s compare our place to schools in cities such as Kumasi, Sunyani or Accra. In such places, the students are always exposed to the English language wherever they go. In such places people always speak English, he watches television, he listens to radio stations and others. Even with all these, I don’t think teachers in such places would use English only for instruction. This suggests that the cause of students low proficiency in the English language is the limited exposure to the language outside school. It could, therefore, be contended that using the English language as the sole LOI in such a setting would be a setback to the academic progress of the students. As a result, the local language, and in this case Twi, becomes an alternative to help students comprehend lessons easily.

How does the use of Twi as the LOI affect teaching and learning at the JHS level?

This research question was posed purposely to find out whether the use of Twi as the LOI could have any effect on teaching and learning. Findings from the interviews and a review of students formative assessment results revealed that the use of Twi in rural and urban schools fosters the academic progress of the students. Data gathered from the interviews revealed that the use of Twi as the LOI in both schools helps students to transfer knowledge, emancipates the students from affective factors such as anxiety and low self-esteem, and also helps the teacher to deliver his lessons easily. Evidence from the interview data supports Cummins(1978) Linguistic Interdependence theory which states that the knowledge acquired through the child’s first language could be easily transferred to a second language. When asked whether the students found any difficulty in transferring the knowledge they acquire in Twi instruction to English, Teacher 1 responded: Menhunuu sε ebia, woama akwadaa bi excercise, na wotumi hunu sε asεm no a ?retwerε no, ebia sε εyε Bor?fo na ?retwerε a na watwerε Twi afra. Saa deε mennya nhunuu bi saa. εnna wotumi hunu sε adeε no a wode ama no Twi no, na woama no exercise anaasε wore-teste no no... wotumi hunu sε adeε no nso no, ?retwerε no Bor?fo a ?twerε no kama, sε wate aseε? .... ahaaa.. εnti menhu sε εbεtumi anya nsunsuanso? biara ... nsunsuanso? b?ne biara w? akwadaa no abrab? no so.. εno deε menhu no saa.

Author’s translation: I have never seen a child providing answers in Twi instead of English when you give them a test. I have never seen such a thing before. However, you would realise that he can transfer whatever knowledge he has acquired in Twi-instruction into the English language perfectly. So I don’t think using Twi as the LOI would have any adverse effect on the child’s learning. Teacher 2 also corroborated this claim by explaining that: Mεka sε dodo? no ara tumi twerε no yie. Wohu sε because of sε wanya nimdeε no nti no, ?retwerε agu paper no so a, ?nim. Because ?nim alphabets no εna Bor?fo no nso no ?ka, nti ?tumi εhyehyε no yie εtwerε passe.  Ebia english deε, woahu sε  εyε... yεbεka sε yεn nyinaa yεsua, but ebia na mfomso? mmaako mmaako bi w? mu na yεacorrect  w?n

Authors Translation: I would say that most of them can write it better. This is because when they acquire the knowledge, it becomes easier for them to demonstrate it on paper since they know the English alphabets and can also speak. Hence, they can organise their thoughts well and pass. However, grammatical errors may be identified and corrected. To confirm this, students’ class tests were reviewed to determine their ability to express their thoughts on paper as claimed by the teachers. Figures 3 and 4 below are samples of the JHS students’ formative assessment results

Figure 3: An integrated science exercise of a student.

Figure 4 : A social studies class exercise of a student.

Source: Field Data (2021): Figure 3 depicts a written class exercise of one of the students whose teacher admitted that 70 percent of the instruction he gives is through the Twi dialect. It is evident in this figure that the student was able to transfer the knowledge acquired in writing the test. An example of  the minor grammatical errors could be spotted in his response to the question ‘What is reproduction’. Despite this grammatical error, it appears that the central idea has been put accross as expected.

Source: Field Data (2021): Figure 3 and 4 confirms the views of the teachers that though the instruction may be in a Twi, it does not affect the transfer of knowledge students have acquired into the English language. This finding appears to object the findings of Amua-Sekyi and Nti (2015) that using the local languages as the LOI lower the academic standards of students in the English language. Also, additional evidence from teacher supports Cummins’ (1978) claim that the students could develop the Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) which can facilitate the use of a second language for casual communication. Nevertheless, for both the teachers and students to use a second language as the LOI, they must develop the Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP). In consonance with this, Teacher 3 opines: In writing, we expect that they write it in English. But I will say that in teaching, we teach them in Twi. You can say whatever you want in English but when they are writing, they can recopy for you. They can write for you, but they do not really understand what they are writing. In copying notes, they can write for you, but they do not understand. In some areas they can read for you, they do not understand. Even if they read and understand, they do not know much about whatever they are talking about. So in areas like this, we teach them the English language; that is in talking and in writing. When they see they will write for you … but in understanding whatever they have even written, it is a difficult thing altogether ok. Her opinion suggests that without the use of Twi as the instructional language, comprehension would be compromised. This means that students may hear and write whatever notes they have been given in the English language but they may not properly understand what they have written. What this means is that even if students can read the English language well, it is just a mere recognition and decoding of words. The role of the Twi, therefore, is to bring to students a better understanding of any concept they may not understand in the English language. Furthermore, another teacher stated that: “…it [Twi instruction] really helps because, sometimes, when you explain something to them in their mother language, they will say ‘ahaaa oh wei a?’ (oh! so is that what you meant?)” This implies that using any language other than the students’ mother language could be an obstacle to understanding the topic under discussion. This reflects the findings of, in that the Twi serves as a bridge for students to better understand certain complex concepts that they would otherwise find difficult to understand in English. On the contrary, when asked to tell whether or not the use of Twi would affect the teaching and learning process, another teacher in the Odumase JHS added that: It will not have any impact on learning, but on the outcome, it would. Why I am I saying so? Because in general, it is the English that they will write. So it can show whether you are going to pass or not. So if you use Twi all the time, when they are going to write the exams, the instructions are in English. We have many subjects, about 9 or 8 subjects, all of them are written in English. In fact, you will find it difficult to understand because when you do not understand it, you cannot answer. Because if you get somebody to explain it to your level, you will be able to pass. However, when you do not understand, at the end of the day they will say you have failed, because you were not able to comprehend what you read. However, if you get someone to explain it to their level they will be able to understand and score. For this teacher, using Twi would only be a disadvantage to students when it is overused. He believes that there should be a balance between the use of English and Twi in the classroom. This suggests that as the teachers use Twi to help students comprehend, English is also used to ensure that students can write down the knowledge acquired on paper. Besides creating room for a better understanding of concepts, the study also found that using Twi as the LOI creates an enabling environment for students to participate in whatever topic being discussed.  Respondents reported that the use of Twi has a positive impact on teaching and learning as it removes all sorts of anxiety and feelings of low self-esteem from the students. This finding concurs with the findings of  [24-25] on issues relating to the implementation of the English-only instruction policy. The interview and classroom observations revealed that strict adherence to the policy rather affected classroom interactions. It was observed that whenever teachers use English in class, students became passive and hardly participate in the lesson. As emphasised by Teacher 2, students would rather stay quiet throughout the lesson than to be ridiculed by peers for an awkward expression. He explains: confidence no deε εyε a Na εw? fam. Sε w?-answer w? Bor?fo no mu a, εyε a Na εw? fam. ?nim sε one, ?ka a, w?bεsere no, nti no εyε a Na εbinom w? h? a w?reka a, Na w?n kasa w? fam. ?suro sε ?bεka no kεse. Sometimes gye sε wo panin no woka kyerε no sε ‘speak loud’ ansa na wabue n’ano akasa.

Author’s translation: They exhibit low self-confidence when they are to provide feedback on learning in the English language. The reason being that they fear being laughed at, so usually, they lower their voices when they are answering questions unless you order them to speak out.

Additionally, Teacher 1 added that: wode Twi no rekyerε adeε a, wotumi hunu sε w?n confidence w? soro paa, εma wotumi hunu sε w?bisa questions paa. εna εbi w? h? a sε ?pagya ne nsa sε ?rema answer anaasε ebia ?rebisa questions a, wotumi hunu sε Bor?fo no ?ka a na εtwitwa si kakra na mama no de saa Bor?fo no a ?kaeε no aba Twi. Nti wotumi hunu sε ?de ba Twi wie na ?resane de ak? Bor?fo mu a, εyε a na εyε easy ma no. Ahaa, nti εno nso koraa yε adeε baako a mahu a εyε a εtaa ma mede Twi εkyerε adeε no. Author’s Translation: When you use Twi as the instructional language, you would realise that the students show a sense of high self-confidence to the extent that they could even ask questions. Sometimes a student may struggle to articulate when answering a question in English. In such cases, I allow him/her to express him/herself in Twi before I instruct him to translate his answer into English. In doing so he finds it a bit easier. This is one of the few things I have observed. It could, therefore, be said that using Twi as the LOI emancipates the students from all feelings of low self-esteem that may be caused by their inability to speak English in the classroom. This result is consistent with the results of  Magulu (2016) and Steyn (2018) in that instruction through the native language enhances the quality of teaching and learning. Similarly, teachers posited that students may have tangible ideas to put across, but their inability to put them into a language they are fluent in may lead them to keep mute on whatever thoughts they have. This is how he puts it: Maybe the person may be providing something tangible, or maybe the correct answer but the person is finding it very difficult to use the English language to express himself or herself,  but because you may say that use English only the person will say that then I won’t talk again… but if you allow them to use Twi, the person will be able to express himself better in the Twi language than using the English. That is the community I find myself. This implies that in the school Teacher 4 finds herself, students have limited exposure to the English language, hence Twi becomes the best option to facilitate learning because from her experience when students are allowed to answer the questions in Twi, they perfectly put across whatever ideas they have on the topic under discussion. Moreso, in describing students’ engagement in Twi medium of instruction, another teacher posited that “… the reserved students, the quiet ones, when you go down to their level, they also participate well. Those who are quiet, if you bring it to their mother tongue, you see everybody is willing to participate. The teacher was further probed to give a possible reason why those he termed as “quiet student” would only get involved when the instruction is the local language. Responding to this, he stated that “I believe that since they all get involved when the conversation is in local language, it can be that they are afraid to speak English. But some of them too, it is their nature. Besides helping the students to be active in the teaching and learning process, teachers also reported that the use of Twi makes their job easier as it enables them to easily explain concepts that they would have spent a lot of time trying to get students to understand in English. As stated by Teacher 1, the core mandate of a teacher is to help students to understand every lesson. Hence, it would make sense if you choose a language that would enable you to achieve successful teaching and learning instead of adhering strictly to the implementation of the language policy. When asked about what would happen if he does not use Twi as the LOI at all, he explained that: Wobεha wo ho aha akwadaa no aka ho... Wo tikya no wobεha wo ho. Because deε nti a wo tikya no wobεha wo ho ne sε, adeε no a worekyerε no wopε sε akwadaa no te aseε, na anka good results biara a εw? ho no, woanya. Na wobεkyerε akwadaa no adeε na ?nte aseε no, sε tikyani no woaha  wo ho.

Author’s Translation:  It will affect you [teacher] as well as the students.  The reason why you would be affected is that it is your objective to get your students to understand whatever you are teaching in order to get the expected results. Hence I believe it would be a waste of time if your students do not understand whatever has been treated by the end of the lesson. It could be inferred from his comments that in the context of Tainso JHS, it is the use of Twi as the LOI that helps them to reach their set objectives of every lesson. Therefore, from the teachers’ standpoint, Twi as the LOI is an inevitable factor in the successful delivery of all lessons. Contrary to the idea that the use of the local language is one of the main factors that cause the underachievement of students (Etsey 2005), it was found, from the perspective of the teachers, that the use of Twi rather helps students to understand lessons better, and therefore Twi cannot be considered a cause of students’ poor academic performance. When asked to give other factors that may be the probable cause of any underachievement of students, Teacher 1 added that: Factors deε sε yεreka a, yεbεnya bebree, εbi ne sε εbia, akwadaa no bεba sukuu no 1 cedi koraa akwadaa no de bεt? aduane adi no, yεmma no. Book a akwadaa no de bεsua adeε no mpo ?nt?.... even koraa nka classes bi... nka first no a yεyε classes no a wobεyε de asupporte no no, 1 cedi koraa no, 50 pesewa koraa no, ?nnya na watua... akwadaa no a na ebia a ?bεk? ne baaday bi ?no ara bεtumi de aboa ne ho. Bi w? h? koraa no a, akwadaa no reba sukuu a, ?de n’akonnwa firi fie na ?de aba.. ?bεba sukuu no, ?nni book, ?nni pen, n’ataadeε koraa atete, sε wahu? Ahaa. Saa nno?ma no nyinaa... woahu sε worek? sukuu na w’ataadeε atete a ?manfo? koraa bεdi wo atεm ma wo koraa no sε worek? a w’ani nnye. εna binom nso w? h? a w?ba sukuu mu late... εbεtumi aba sε break time, yεma break 10:45, na afei na obi reba. Wobisa no sε adεn a? Ne kwan ware. Sε woahu? Because akwadaa k? fie na sε ebia ?nhu biribi, na ebi koraa Twi mu mpo na ?bεbisa awofo? no ama anka w?akyerε no aseε na anka ?no nso de aba Bor?fo a, w?se w?bisa w?n awofo? no asεm mpo a na w?n bo afu

Author’s Translation: There are various factors, one of them is that a child would come to school without 1 cedi to buy food. He would not even bother to buy books that will facilitate his learning, and even if there is an organised extra classes, as we previously practised, he would not get 1 cedi or 50 pesewas to take part unless the child takes it upon himself to engage in labour before he gets money to pay.  Sometimes, a child would have to provide his chair from home. He would come to school without book and pen, and would also come to school in a ripped uniform. You would agree with me that if you go to school with a torn uniform, people will make mockery of you to the extent that you would be discouraged. Also, some of the students come to school very late. When you ask them why they are late, they will tell you they cover a very long distance to school. Drawing on this, it becomes necessary to note that the language factor, from the perspective of teachers in the Tainso R/C JHS, plays a lesser role in students’ underachievement. The data from the interviews revealed that factors such as inadequate motivational support and supply of teaching and learning resources for learning rather affect students in the school. Hence, contrary to the findings of Etsey (2005), the local language (Twi) as the LOI may not be one of the contributing factors to low academic performance in their school. However, it was perceived that the use of Twi as the LOI appears to be the most effective means of communication that facilitates teaching and learning.

How Do Students React To The Use Of Twi As The LOI At The JHS Level?

This research objective sought to ascertain how students react to the use of Twi as the LOI. It was meant to find out whether or not students show some level of interest or disinterest in Twi as a medium of instruction. Data collected through classroom observations, focus group discussion with students and interviews show that students show great interest in Twi as a medium of instruction by actively participating in lessons,  demonstrating an understanding of the lesson whenever teachers use Twi as the LOI. Initial interviews with the teachers revealed that students show a great deal of interest in Twi medium of instruction to the extent that they could even alert the teacher to translate aspects of what has been said into Twi for them to understand. When asked whether the students show some sort of disinterest in the overuse of Twi as the LOI, Teacher 2 of Tainso quickly replied emphatically that “εnte saa, εduru baabi a εnte saa koraa, wokasa bεyε 10 munites, na wouse Bor?fo saa a, obi koraa tumi ka sε  “sir εyε  a fa bi bra Twi mu” (that is not the case at all, when you speak English continuously for about 10 minutes without using Twi, one of them may tell you that ‘sir, you have to explain some of the points in Twi’). This implies that from the perspective of students, Twi is the prefered LOI. This finding contradicts the findings of Burden (2000), who found that students in Japanese universities were of the view that English Language must be used exclusively for communication in classroom. It, however, adds up to Tajgozari’s (2017) finding which reveals that students in all language levels in Iranian Institutes expressed a positive reaction to the use of the first language in the second language classroom. Additionally, it was revealed that lessons that aroused the interest of the students were the Asante Twi lessons. The reason being that it was the only lesson that allowed unrestricted use of Twi as the LOI. Accounting on this, Teacher 3 revealed that: They [the students] have more interest in the subject Asante Twi. They have more interest because that is where they can express themselves, even the less academic student [the slow learner] someone who is not performing so well in his academic work will be able to express himself or herself in that particular lesson.” She further explained that it allows a slow learner to participate effectively because he can express himself effectively.  It could, therefore, be stated that in the case of Tainso R/C JHS and Odumase Roman Catholic School, students showed great interest in Twi as the medium of instruction. Apart from the students showing great interest in Twi as the instructional language, active participation among students in classroom activities was also identified as one consequence of using Twi as the LOI. Hence, it was perceived by most of the respondents that the use of Twi triggered the teacher-learner relationship. As a confirmation to the classroom observations conducted, Teacher 1 emphasized that; Sε  woma Twi no yε  more than Bor?fo no a, mε tumi anya gyidie aka sε  obiara ani gye. Obiara tumi kasa ε ma ne ho t? no... bisa ne questions εma ne ho t? no kama

Author’s Translation: instructional language all the time. Everyone of them expresses his thought effectively and also asked questions. Also, Teacher 4 added that: Looking at our area; that is my area, using the Twi, which is the Asante Twi is best for them. They react better to their Twi more than the other languages because if you speak English language, somebody will stand there for about 30 minutes before he tries to analyse everything in the head before he proceeds in whatever he wants to do. But for the Twis when you say it at once they just proceed with it. They react better, that is where I am, as compared to the English Language. This shows that comparatively, the use of Twi accelerates the lesson delivery as it is perceived by teachers that the students grasp concepts quicker when the teacher uses Twi as the LOI. On the contrary, insight from the focus group discussion with students revealed discrepancies in students’ responses with regards to how they react to using Twis (Twi) as the LOI in the classroom. While some favour the Twi medium, others subscribe to the English language medium of instruction. The rationale given by students who prefer English instruction was that it is the official language of the country, and hence, it is imperative to gain proficiency in English language at an early stage of Education. Those who were in favour of the Twi medium of instruction also opined that it is essential to receive instruction in Twi because it facilitates learning. Responding to whether or not they favour the Twi medium of instruction, one of the students responded that: aane εfiri sε  Bor?fo no bi w? h? a yε nte aseε  nti ?de Bor?fo no kyerε  a na waka ne Twi ama yεahunu sε  Bor?fo no a ?kaeε  no sei na ε teε 

Author’s transtion: Yes because we may not understand most of the things he says  in English, so when he teaches in English he later explains it in Twi to let us know the meaning of what he said in Twi.

Another Student Affirmed This By Saying

Aane, εfiri sε  at times no wobε feeli sε  deε  ?reka no wonte aseε  nti ε w? sε  wobisa but w?ka ne nyinaa fra. ?nim sε  wonte aseε  no nti ?ka English kakra a na waka Twi.

Author’s translation: Yes, because sometimes you might have the feeling that you are not getting the meaning of what they are saying, so you may be tempted to ask. But since they [the teachers]  know that when they speak English you might not understand, they code-switch. Also, another reason students gave when commenting on why they favour the Twi instruction was that it is their language, therefore it becomes interesting when they receive instruction in it. Affirming this, one of them said that “εyε  a na εyε  me dε  because ε yε  me language” (I like it because it is my own language). She further added that: Two no nyinaa, mepε  Twi ne Bor?fo no nyinaa. Because English no ε no na metwerε , work biara a mε yε  biara no ε no na metwerε , afei nso adeε  biara mε -read biara no w?atwerε  no Bor?fo.

Author’s Translation: I like the instruction in both languages. I like Twi and English. Because the English language is the language I write. I write English in every assignment I do. Also, every learning material I read is written in English. From the points raised by these students, it could be said that they are in favour of Ghanain language instruction. Their rationale behind that is its ability to help them comprehend the lessons. On the other hand, they also favour the English medium of instruction since they believe that in any academic work, they would be tasked to express their thoughts in it. The rationale for liking the English instruction appears to be utilitarian since they were of doubts whether or not the use of Twi could help them demonstrate knowledge in English. These results are consistent with the results of Veerumuthu et al. (2011). Additionally, a student added that she expects to be instructed in the English language only. Below is her reason for saying that. M’ani bεgye ho because wobεyε panyin na wonya adwuma biara a wonka Twi na Bor]fo nko ara na wobεka. Adwuma no w]de Bor]fo a wontumi nk]ka Twi nti εyε English nko ara a εyε.

Author’s Translation: I would like it εEnglish only instruction] because when you grow up and get a job, you are not going to use Twi, but you would be required to speak English only She was therefore asked whether she would be happy with English-only instruction even if understanding the lesson is compromised. She added that mewie a mεbisa no sε εha sei deε mente aseε (after that I will ask that I didn’t understand this part). In line with the findings of Burden (2000), it could be said that for the sake of understanding and explanation of complex concepts in every lesson, the students expect teachers to use their mother tongue; however, they also need the English medium to prepare them for other academic tasks such as reading, and answering questions in examinations.

The study concludes that adherence to the implementation of the English-only instruction at the Junior High School level would be burdensome based on the language proficiency of teachers and students in the schools under review. It could be said that even if teachers are to stick to the implementation plan of the language in Education Policy, they would be doing so to the detriment of students. To get the best of results from the students and the schools as a whole, the Twi instruction is necessary. In addition, the study concludes that restricting the use of Twi, as the language of communication in delivery of lessons is a means to ameliorate the low proficiency of students in the English language. Again, the study concludes that Twi instruction at the JHS level proves to be beneficial to teaching and learning because, without it, most students will be passive because of the communication gap they will experience in classrooms when only English language is allowed as the instructional language. Again, Twi as the LOI does not impede the academic progress of students as some studies suggest. However, it could be concluded that the Twi instruction serves as a foundation on which students build their knowledge because it provides an understanding of any complex and unfamiliar concepts. Hence, it could be argued that, in the context of these schools other schools alike, violating the early-exit model is not detrimental to student learning but rather beneficial in disguise. Despite the fact that the use of Twi as the LOI has proven to be beneficial to teaching and learning, opinions on the language preference of students appear to be divided. Students cannot write off the benefits of using Twi as the instructional language but they also advocated for enforcement of English instruction. It, therefore, appears that for the sake of understanding of lessons, students think that Twi instruction must continue. Nevertheless, for examination and utility purposes, they also advocate for the enforcement of English instruction. This suggests that English and Twi must be used to complement each other in teaching and learning at the Junior High School level.

Based on the findings of this study, these recommendations have been proposed.

• It is recommended that considerations be made for both languages to be used complementarily at the JHS level. The Language in Education policy should therefore be revisited if teachers are required to stick strictly to its implementation plan.
• Teachers should not use the Twi excessively since the English language is the language of the curriculum, and students need to develop their proficiency in it as well.
• It is also recommended that teachers should not forcibly impose English instruction on students because it could make most of the students passive in the teaching and learning environment.
• Given the struggles with the implementation of the early-exit model in Ghana, it is suggested that it should be discarded for the adoption of the late-exit model to ensure that students gain mastery of the English language before transition into a mainstream English class.

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