Preliminary Major Health Problems and Associated Risk Factors of Calves’ Mortality in Selected Districts of Ilubabor and Jimma Zones, Ethiopia
Amenta MW, Hunde DG and Mohamed MI
Published on: 2023-12-18
Abstract
Introduction: Even though there are good beginnings of initiatives on calves to improve the blood level of local breeds in Ethiopia through artificial insemination, health problems and calf mortality are becoming a bottleneck on livestock production and the livelihood of poor farmers. The aim of the study was to identify preliminary major health problems and associated risk factors for calves’ mortality. A cross-sectional study was conducted on calves from February 2023 to June 2023. Binary outcome logistic regression data analysis was used to summarize using Stata software version 13. The cluster random sampling technique was used to accomplish the study.
Result: A total of 218 farmers and farm owners were interviewed, and fecal samples, ectoparasites, and skin lesions were collected from 389 calves. The gastrointestinal parasite infection was significantly related to body condition, age, and breeds of calves (P<0.05). The ectoparasite infestation was significantly related to districts, body condition, age, and breeds of calves (p<0.05). The variation of ring worm prevalence among risk factors (ages, breeds, and farms) was statistically significant (p<0.05). There was a significant difference in morbidity rate and crude mortality rate between zones, breeds, weaning ages, and farm production systems (p<0.05).
Conclusion: In the study areas, gastrointestinal parasites, ectoparasites, and ring worms were major health problems for calves and responsible for the high morbidity rate and crude mortality rate. Therefore, awareness of disease prevention and husbandry practices should be raised. Also, the Agricultural Bureau and all stakeholders should work cooperatively to reduce the morbidity and mortality of calves.
Keywords
Cross-sectional; Ethiopia; Calves; Mortality; Health problemsIntroduction
Ethiopia is first by livestock population from Africa, with an estimated 70.3 million cattle, 9.12% of which are calves under the age of six months [1]. Dairy and beef farming in urban and semi-urban regions is growing swiftly across the country as a result of rising urbanization and increased demand for meat, milk, and milk products, even though the extensive production system is still the country's leading method of livestock husbandry [2]. Urban and peri-urban dairies are semi-intensive to intensive production systems that maintain exotic and cross-bred cows with comparatively better management practices [3]. Although the dairy industry has grown significantly in recent years, it is reportedly suffering from inefficient reproduction, a low rate of calf survival, high calf morbidity and mortality, and a high incidence of diseases [4]. Insufficient quality feed, pitiable husbandry practices, and inattention to young stock management as a result of diverse responsibilities in small-scale mixed farming systems raise calf morbidity and mortality in tropical regions [5].
Parasitic infection of cattle is a major factor responsible for economic losses through a reduction in productivity and increased mortality in heavily parasitized animals [6]. Gastrointestinal parasites are the most important agents causing disease in calves [7]. Calves are most vulnerable to gastrointestinal parasites in their first grazing season, although yearlings and, less often, adults are sometimes affected [8]. Gastrointestinal parasitic infections, nematode and Eimeria species, play a key role in economic losses in that they cause low productivity, delayed growth, declined weight gain and death of the animal, and significant expenses of treatment [7]. Ectoparasites, commonly ticks, mites, fleas, and lice, affect the host through inflammation and through the damage they inflict on the skin and on the host's physiology. They are also very significant in diverse disease transmissions to humans and animals [9]. The damages inflicted by ectoparasites are irritation, stress, or blood loss. Lice and tick worry are known conditions that decrease feed effectiveness and weight gain in livestock [9]. In Ethiopia, ectoparasites in ruminants cause grave economic loss to farmers, the tanning industry, and the country as a whole via the mortality of the animals, reduced production, downgrading, and elimination of skin and hide [10].
Dermatophytosis in domestic animals is an infection of keratinized tissues by one of the two genera of fungi, Microsporum and Trichophyton [11]. Although information is lacking in Ethiopia, it is believed to pose the greatest economic and human health consequences in most developed countries [12]. Tartor [13] described that 84.91% of calves showed ringworm lesions were positive for fungal elements in direct microscopy and 79.72% were positive in culture. The detection rates were 84.91% by direct microscopy and 79.72% by fungal culture. As researchers described, terbinafine and miconazole were effective antifungal drugs for dermatophytes, followed by itraconazole and griseofulvin [14].
Calf mortality is the most vital constraint for improving and advancing dairy production in Ethiopia. Yearly calf mortality in urban and peri-urban dairy production systems is recorded to be in the range of 15.3%–25% [15]. Also, 62% morbidity and 22% mortality are reported in market-oriented smallholder dairy farms in central Ethiopia [16]. However, in the current study areas, there has been no information on calves’ health problems. Therefore, the aim of this study was to provide the following objectives.
- To identify preliminary major health problems in calves
- To know the magnitude of calf morbidity and mortality
- To identify associated risk factors for calves’ morbidity and mortality
Materials And Methods
Description of Study Area
This study was conducted in purposefully selected districts of the Ilubabor and Jimma zones (Figure 1). Ilubabor Zone is located in the south-western part of Oromia, Ethiopia. In the Ilubabor zone, the study was done in three purposively selected districts of Metu, Ale, and Yayo, with a cattle population of 146635, 70553, and 63769, respectively (Zone Agriculture Office, 2023). In Jimma zone, the study was done in two purposefully selected Jimma cities, Dedo and Gomma districts, with a cattle population of 67808, 435281, and 271332, respectively (Zone Agriculture Office, 2023).
Figure 1: Map of Study Area.
Study Population
The study population consisted of local and cross-breed calves. The target population was calves up to 12 months of age in purposefully selected districts and Jimma City. The study population was all calves aged 12 months in randomly selected kebele and households. Calves were categorized by: weaning age (< 6 months, 6–12 months), sex (male, female), body condition (good, poor), breed (cross, local), mixing different age groups (yes, no), cleaning activity (regular, irregular), farm type (extensive, intensive, semi-intensive), floor of house (soil, concrete, made from local tree), source of drinking water (tap, hand dung well, river), and colostrum feeding (suckling, hand feeding). A semi-structured questionnaire survey of selected household owners was used to assess factors associated with calf morbidity and mortality.
Study Design and Sampling Method
A cross-sectional study was conducted from February 2023 to June 2023 to determine the status of calf morbidity and mortality and to assess risk factors as well. All calves of farmers or farm workers of one year of age were observed for any health problems, and fecal samples and skin scraping for skin lesions were collected and submitted to a regional laboratory to determine the prevalence and major gastrointestinal parasites of calves. Also, all calves of owners were assessed for ectoparasites and submitted to a regional laboratory to identify the genera of those ectoparasites.
Sample Size Determination and Sampling Technique
The sample size was determined according to [17] for cluster random sampling using an expected animal level prevalence of 50% and a desired absolute precision of 5% with a 95% CI since there was no previously expected prevalence in the study area.
Where n = sample size, t = linked to the 95% confidence interval for cluster sampling (2.045), p =expected prevalence (fraction of 1), q = 1-p (expected non-prevalence), d = relative desired precision, DEFF = Design Effect =1. Accordingly, 389 local and cross-breed calves were sampled, assessed for ectoparasites, and scraped if any skin lesions were found. The first districts were purposefully selected based on calves morbidity and mortality problem reports. In Metu, Ale, Yayo, Gomma, Jimma City, and Dedo districts, kebele and households or farms were randomly selected. At the second stage, the household of each kebele was randomly selected. Finally, all caves of one year of age were examined for ectoparasite, and fecal samples were collected except those that did not start feeding grass.
Sample Collection and Transportation
Sedimentation Method
A total of 389 fresh fecal samples were taken from the rectum of the animals by wearing plastic hand gloves. The fecal samples were positioned in screw-capped universal bottles, preserved with 10% formalin, and transported to Bedelle Regional Veterinary Laboratory. The fecal samples were examined using standard sedimentation techniques. The existence of at least one parasite egg in either of the tests shows that the result is positive. The egg morphology, appearance, size, color, and presence of blastomeres were used to categorize the parasites.
Collection and Preservation of Ticks from Calves
Firstly, the selected calves were appropriately controlled and checked for any tick infestation. Ticks were detached from different body regions of the host skin for identification using the hand [18]. The collected ticks from calves were preserved in separate pre-filled universal bottles with 70% alcohol before being shipped to the Bedelle regional veterinary laboratory for identification of their genera. The collected ticks were known at different genera levels by using a stereomicroscope, according to the standard classification keys given by Walker [19]. Accordingly, the most common tick genera were Boophilus, followed by Ambyleyoma.
Lice Collection and Identification
Lice that were unknown during clinical examination were collected by forceps or handpicking with hairs from their attachment sites, put into a clean, separate container (universal bottles), labeled, and preserved with 70% ethyl alcohol before transportation to the Asella regional veterinary laboratory for detailed laboratory examination as described by Urquhart [20]. Then the collected ectoparasites were examined by stereomicroscope, and identification was performed according to the identification key given by Wall and Shearer [21]. Linognathus vituli and Damalina bovis were among the major lice species identified in different studies.
Skin Scraping Lesions
The samples of skin scraping were collected from the periphery of the lesion after cleaning with 70% ethyl alcohol in sterile falcons. Samples were collected from infected animals suffering from lesions suggesting ring worm infections (circumscribed areas of hair loss filled with raised white scales on the head, neck, or all over the body). One or two drops of 20% KOH (potassium hydroxide) were placed on a microscopic slide, and a small amount of the specimen was added. The slide was then gently passed through a low flame and covered by a cover slip. After 2 h, the specimen was examined for the presence of hyphae under a light microscope (40 x objectives) according to [22].
Data Management and Analysis
All data obtained from the field was recorded in record sheet format and later entered into a Microsoft Excel worksheet and Binary outcome Logistic regression data analysis was used to summarize using Stata software version 13. The overall prevalence was calculated by dividing positive samples by the total number of examined samples and multiplying by 100. The odds ratio was used to assess the association between the dependent and independent variables. A P-value-valuess than 0.05 (P < 0.05) was set for the significance of statistical associations. [23].
Results
During the study period, 164 smallholder farmers, 31 semi-intensive dairy farm owners, and 23 intensive dairy farm owners with a total of 561 calves up to 12 months old were interviewed. A total of 389 caves were observed for any ectoparasite infestation; fecal samples and skin lesion samples were collected for up to one year.
Prevalence of Gastrointestinal Parasites
Out of 389 fecal samples collected, 148 (38%) were positive for eggs of different species of gastrointestinal parasites in both Jimma and Ilubabor zones. The prevalence was 43.8% and 31.9% in the Ilubabor and Jimma zones, respectively.
Table 1: Risk Factors Associated with Gastrointestinal Parasites.
Variables |
No. of calves examined |
No. infected |
Prevalence (%) |
OR (95% CI) |
P.V |
Zone |
|||||
Ilubabor |
201 |
88 |
43.8 |
2.3(1.45-3.73) |
0.013 |
Jimma |
188 |
60 |
31.9 |
RF |
RF |
Total |
389 |
148 |
38 |
|
|
District |
|||||
Metu |
69 |
27 |
39.1 |
0.74(0.512-1.290) |
0.234 |
Ale |
71 |
33 |
46.5 |
1.4(0.83-2.16) |
0.062 |
Yayo |
61 |
26 |
42.6 |
0.97(0.47-1.59) |
0.187 |
Gomma |
62 |
22 |
35.5 |
0.64(0.42-1.15) |
0.143 |
Jimma city |
55 |
18 |
32.7 |
1.2(0.65-1.79) |
0.057 |
Dedo |
71 |
19 |
26.8 |
RF |
RF |
Body condition |
|||||
Good |
162 |
81 |
50 |
3.4(2.13-5.57) |
0.029 |
Poor |
227 |
67 |
29.5 |
RF |
RF |
Age |
|||||
6-12 month |
215 |
91 |
42.3 |
2.6(1.74-3.78) |
0.04 |
< 6 month |
174 |
57 |
32.8 |
RF |
RF |
Sex |
|||||
Female |
223 |
90 |
40.4 |
1.33(0.74-2.45) |
0.109 |
Male |
166 |
58 |
34.9 |
RF |
RF |
Breed |
|||||
Local |
251 |
103 |
41 |
2.75(1.84-3.91) |
0.004 |
Cross |
138 |
45 |
32.6 |
RF |
RF |
The gastrointestinal parasite infection was significantly related to zone, body condition, age, and breeds of calves. The odds of gastrointestinal parasite infection were 3.4, 2.6, and 2.75 in good body condition, 6–12 month ages, and local calf breeds, respectively (p<0.05) (Table 1). However, there was no significant association among districts and sex (P> 0.05) (Table 1).
Prevalence of Ectoparasites
Out of 389 calves observed, 280 (71.98%) were positive for either one or more ectoparasites in both Jimma and Ilubabor zones. The prevalence was 89.55% and 53.20% in the Ilubabor and Jimma zones, respectively (Table 3). Ticks, fleas, and lice were known calves’ ectoparasite infestations, with 54.5% (212/389), 32.4% (126/389), and 3.3% (13/389) prevalence, respectively (Table 2).
The ectoparasite infestation was significantly related to the study area, body condition, age, and breeds of calves (p<0.05). The odds of ectoparasite infestation were 2.8, 2.2, and 3.5 in good body condition, 6–12 month ages, and local calf breeds, respectively (p<0.05) (Table 3). However, there was no significant association between sex (P> 0.05) (Table 3).
During surveillance, two tick genera were identified, namely Boophilus and Ambyleyoma. Boophilus was the most common tick genera that infested calves. Biting lice (Damalinia bovis) and sucking lice (Linognathus vituli) were identified during surveillance.
Table 2: Ectoparasite Prevalence.
Zone |
District |
No. of calves sampled |
Ticks |
Fleas |
Lice |
Ilubabor |
Metu |
69 |
45 |
36 |
1 |
Ale |
71 |
62 |
35 |
1 |
|
Yayo |
61 |
25 |
39 |
0 |
|
|
Total |
201 |
132 |
110 |
2 |
Jimma |
Gomma |
62 |
38 |
7 |
2 |
Jimma city |
55 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
Dedo |
71 |
42 |
9 |
9 |
|
|
Total |
188 |
80 |
16 |
11 |
Grand total |
389 |
212 |
126 |
13 |
Table 3: Risk Factors Associated with Ectoparasite Infestation.
Variables |
No. of calves examined |
No. calves infested |
Prevalence |
OR (95% CI) |
P.V |
Zone |
|||||
Ilubabor |
201 |
180 |
89.55 |
4(3.10-5.68) |
0 |
Jimma |
188 |
100 |
53.2 |
RF |
RF |
Total |
389 |
280 |
71.98 |
|
|
District |
|||||
Metu |
69 |
58 |
84.1 |
3.4(2.32-5.18) |
0.013 |
Ale |
71 |
67 |
94.4 |
3.79(2.52-5.65) |
0.004 |
Yayo |
61 |
55 |
90.2 |
4.2(2.86-6.29) |
0.001 |
Gomma |
62 |
44 |
70.97 |
2.69(1.59-3.81) |
0.023 |
Dedo |
71 |
56 |
78 |
3.3(2.29-4.89) |
0.019 |
Jimma city |
55 |
0 |
0 |
RF |
RF |
Body condition |
|||||
Good |
162 |
152 |
93.8 |
2.8(1.34-3.94) |
0.021 |
Poor |
227 |
128 |
56.4 |
RF |
RF |
Age |
|||||
6-12 month |
215 |
160 |
74.4 |
2.2(1.13-3.67) |
0.039 |
< 6 month |
174 |
120 |
68.97 |
RF |
RF |
Sex |
|||||
Male |
166 |
128 |
77.11 |
1.3(0.88-1.95) |
0.102 |
Female |
223 |
152 |
68.16 |
RF |
RF |
Breed |
|||||
Local |
251 |
223 |
88.84 |
3.5(2.23-5.64) |
0.031 |
Cross |
138 |
57 |
41.3 |
RF |
RF |
Prevalence of Ring Worm
According to the results of this study among 389 calves, 16 of them (4.10%) were clinically positive for skin ringworm lesions (Figure 2). After microscopic examination, 11 calves (2.83%) were positive for dermatophyte infections. However, skin lesions were negative for mangemitis and dermathophilosis. The variation of ring worm prevalence among risk factors (ages, breeds, and farms) was statistically significant (p<0.05) (Table 4).
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