Viruses in Beef, Mutton, Chevon, Venison, Fish and Poultry Meat Products
Shaltout FA
Published on: 2023-12-06
Abstract
Beef means meat of cattle, mutton means meat of sheep, chevon means meat of the flesh of the goat used as food, venison means meat of dear, fish means meat of fish and shellfish, poultry means chicken, duck, geese, turkey, pigeon, and rabbit.
Beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish and poultry meat act as a main sources of animal protein, in recent decades, viruses have been increasingly known as important causes of foodborne diseases mostly due to the improved methods of diagnosis and investigation. Virus transmission through consumption of infected beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat products or contact with contaminated beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat products and water is now well known. The viruses most frequently involved in foodborne infections are public noroviruses, hepatitis A virus, human rotavirus, and hepatitis E virus.
Beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat act as major sources of animal protein. NoV and RV infections are common causes of acute human gastroenteritis, while hepatitis A virus and hepatitis E virus cause human hepatitis worldwide. Most of the cases remain unreported due to subclinical cases.
Keywords
Virus; Beef; Mutton; Chevon; Venison; Fish; Poultry meat productsIntroduction
Beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat act as main sources of animal protein. Foodborne viruses are generally very infectious, and their spreading is rapid from one individual to the next, although several exceptions exist, such as the hepatitis E virus. The majority of foodborne virus outbreaks were linked to the infected food handlers, as hepatitis A viruses are mainly transmitted between humans (133, 136, 137, 1, 2, 3, and 4). In contrast, the hepatitis E virus has been identified as an important disease. Beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat can potentially be contaminated throughout the whole food product chain, and sources of contamination can include equipment, other contaminated food, and beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat or meat products originating from infected animals and water (131, 135, 139, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9).
Beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat act as main sources of animal protein, and shellfish are the major food categories involved in foodborne viral gastroenteritis (140, 141, 142, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14). However, risky beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat are particularly considered, particularly those that are intended for direct consumption or that are not properly heat treated before consumption (135, 136, 137, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19). Investigation of viruses in beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat products (131, 132, 133, 134, 135 and 136).
Polymerase Chain Reaction Method for Hepatitis A Virus Investigation
The PCR method, or polymerase chain reaction method, is a means for amplification of a region of DNA whose arrangement is known or lies between two portions of a known arrangement.
Before PCR, DNA of interest could be amplified by overexpression in cells, but with limited yield.
Components
- DNA template
- Primers
- Enzyme
- dNTPs
- Mg2+
- Buffers1- DNA template
1- DNA template
- DNA containing region to be arrangement
- Size of target DNA to be amplified: up to 3 Kb
2- Primers
- Two sets of primers
- Generally 20-30 nucleotides long
- Synthetically produced complimentary to the 3’ ends of target DNA not complimentary to each other Primers (• Not containing inverted repeat arrangement to avoid formation of internal structures)
- 40-60% GC content preferred for better annealing
- Tm of primers can be calculated to determine annealing T0
- Tm= .41(%G+C) + 16.6log (J+) + 81.5 where J+ is the concentration of monovalent ions
3- Enzyme
- Usually Taq Polymerase or anyone of the natural or Recombinant thermostable polymerases.
- Stable at T0 up to 950 C
- High processivity
- Taq Pol has 5’-3’ exo only, no proofreading
The PCR Cycle Comprised of 3 steps: -
- Denaturation of DNA at 95 C
- Primer hybridization (annealing) at 40-50 C
- DNA synthesis (Primer extension) at 72 c72
RT-PCR Method
- Reverse Transcriptase PCR
- Uses RNA as the initial template
- RNA-directed DNA polymerase (rTh)
- Yields ds cDNA
Investigation of Amplification Products
- Gel electrophoresis
- Sequencing of amplified fragment
- Southern blot
Advantages
- Automated, fast, reliable (reproducible) results
- Contained :( less chances of contamination)
- High output
- Sensitive
- Broad uses
- Defined, easy to follow protocols
ELISA Method for Food Borne Viruses Investigation
ELISA method is a biochemical method used mainly in immunology to detect the presence or absence of an antibody or an antigen in beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat samples.
The method is divided into
- Competitive ELISA method
- Sandwich ELISA method or direct ELISA method
- Indirect ELISA method
Competitive ELIZA Method
The labeled antigen competes for primary antibody binding places with the beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat samples. The more antigen in the beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat samples, the less labeled antigen is retained in the well and the weaker the signal.
Sandwich ELISA
- The ELISA plate is coated with antibodies to detect specific antigens.
Prepare a surface to which a known quantity of capture antibody is bound.
- Block any nonspecific binding sites on the surface.
- Apply the antigen-containing sample to the plate.
Wash the plate so the unbound antigen is removed.
Apply enzyme-linked primary antibodies as investigation antibodies, which also bind specifically to the antigen.
Wash the plate so the unbound antibody enzyme conjugates are removed.
- Apply a chemical that is converted by the enzyme into a colored product.
- Detect the absorbency of the plate wells to investigate the presence and quantity of antigen.
Indirect ELISA
The protein antigen to be tested is added to each well of the ELISA plate, where it is given time to adhere to the plastic by charge interactions.
A solution of non-reacting protein is added to block any plastic surface in the well that remains uncoated by the protein antigen.
Then the serum is added, which contains a mixture of the serum antibodies of unknown concentration, some of which may bind specifically to the test antigen that is coating the well. Afterwards, a secondary antibody is added, which will bind to the antibody bound to the test antigen in the well. This secondary antibody often has an enzyme attached to it.
A substrate for this enzyme is then added. This substrate changes color upon reaction with the enzyme. The color change shows that secondary antibody has bound to primary antibody, which strongly implies that the donor has had an immune reaction to the test antigen. The higher the concentration of the primary antibody that was present in the serum, the stronger the color change. Often, a spectrometer is used to give quantitative values for color strength.
Discussion
Beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat act as main sources of animal protein. Viruses are transmitted through foods in the form of extremely small particles, ranging in size from nearly twenty-five nanometers to less than one hundred nanometers in diameter (133, 134, 135, 20,21,222,23,24, and 25). The structure of a virus is mainly a nucleic acid core with a protein coat. A few have an additional, lipid-containing envelope (140, 141, 142, 26, 27, 28, 29, and 30). The particles are roughly spherical in shape and are totally inert, in the sense that they cannot carry out any of what are commonly regarded as life processes (131, 132, 133, 31, 32, 33, 34, and 35).
Beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat act as main sources of animal protein. Viruses are of concern to health because of their ability to produce infections, some of which result in disease (141, 142, 140, 36, 38, 39, and 40). They do this on a very selective basis. Viruses that infect the public tend not to be capable of infecting other species, with the exception of our closest evolutionary relatives (144, 143, 139, 41, 42, 43, 44, and 45). Viruses that infect other animal species tend not to be infectious to humans (46, 47, 48, and 49). The exceptions are viruses that are occasionally transmitted from beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat, which act as main sources of animal protein to man. They are not known to be transmitted through beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat and meat products (131, 138, 139, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, and 55). In addition to their species specificity, viruses show a distinct individual preference for infecting certain tissues or organs of the host’s body (144, 143, 142, 141, 56, 57, 58, 59, and 60). This tissue specificity determines which cells of the host’s body become infected and what symptoms are likely to result from a virus infection. Whether or not they cause disease, virus infections tend to be self-limiting (144, 140, 137, 61, 62, 63, 64, and 65).
Beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat act as main sources of animal protein. The body’s immune processes ordinarily suppress a virus infection after some period of time, so the presence of viruses as obligate parasites depends on their ability to pass from one host to another. Viruses that infect humans are principally transmitted directly from person to person, either by actual touching or by aerosols over short distances. However, they are also capable of being transmitted indirectly through food and water, as well as a few other means (144, 140, 139, 66, 67, 68, 69, and 70).
Beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat act as main sources of animal protein. Virus contamination of foods has been categorized as primary or secondary, depending upon whether the viruses are present in the beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry at the time of slaughter. In the case of beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, poultry meat, and meat products (137, 138, 139,71, 72, 73, 74, 75, and 76), the viruses that are already present at the time of slaughter are of little concern to public health. Instead, the outbreaks recorded indicated that the problems were related to beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat contamination, usually mishandling of beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat by a person with a gut virus infection (144, 143, 77, 78, 79, 80, and 81). Public gut viruses in sewage have also contaminated beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat and meat products, but neither insects nor rodents are known to have served as vectors in secondary contamination of beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat, despite the obvious possibility that they might do so (135, 136, 82, 83, 84, 85, and 86).
Contamination of beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat as main sources of animal protein does not guarantee that a consumer infection will result (or, for that matter that most virus infections result in overt disease). A virus that has been introduced into beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat cannot possibly multiply but may be inactivated (deprived of its infectivity) before the beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat are eaten (87, 88, 89, 90, and 91). This can come about in a number of ways, the most practical being thermal processing or cooking (92, 93, 94, 95, 96, and 97). The times and temperatures required for virus inactivation in beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat cannot be specified precisely (131, 132, 133, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, and 103).
Beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat act as main sources of animal protein. Viruses in a rare steak probably pose no threat to public health because viruses within the muscle are likely to be of animal origin and therefore not infectious for the consumer (104, 105, 106, 107, and 108). Viruses in ground beef, however, may be of human origin; the heat stability of the viral contaminant varies with the fat content of the ground beef, but complete inactivation can apparently be assured by cooking the beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat until all pink color disappears from the center (144, 143, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, and 114). Viruses on the surface of beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat can probably be inactivated by ultraviolet light, and ionizing radiation can inactivate viruses in subsurface locations (115, 116, 117, 118, and 119). Although the coat proteins of some viruses are apparently biodegradable, the microbial decomposition of beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat through prolonged storage evidently has little effect on the virus (133, 134, 120, 121, 122, 123, and 124).
Beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat act as main sources of animal protein. There is one important exception to some of the above generalizations that should be mentioned: the virus of foot and mouth disease, which is no direct threat to human health but has great economic significance, is chemically degraded in voluntary muscle by the acid of rigor mortis but is protected from this, and withstands a great deal of heat in lymph nodes, bone marrow, and large blood clots (143, 142, 140, 144).
Beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat act as main sources of animal protein. Many kinds of viruses in beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat can be detected on the basis of their ability to produce infections in cell cultures. The absolutely necessary steps in the investigation process are to make a fluid suspension of the sample and inoculate it into a culture of susceptible cells; however, in practice, several additional steps are usually required. Detection of viruses that are of significance to public health, but no type of cell culture is known to be susceptible to the virus of hepatitis A or to some of the viral gastroenteritis agents. The methods that are available are used, despite their cost and complexity, because they are not valid indicators, the presence of which would indicate the virus contamination of beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat had occurred (143, 142, 140, and 139).
Plant or market samples of beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat and meat products have been tested for viral contaminants. Ground beef has attracted a great deal of attention. Human viruses were detected in market beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish and poultry meat, and meat products. Hepatitis has shown that viral contamination of ground beef can be a threat to public health. Gut virus infections are common in slaughtered animals. Viruses were also found in some by-products, but the viruses apparently were not infectious for humans, and none were found in market beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish and poultry meat, or meat products (135, 136, 137, and 138).
Human viral diseases associated with beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat have included only hepatitis A, a lingering, debilitating disease that is very specific for humans and is transmitted by a fecal-oral cycle. Other human gut viruses might well be transmitted through beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat in the same way on occasion, as is beginning to be observed with other foods. They are not transmitted between humans and animals, and where this could be determined, all of the events of contamination that led to outbreaks took place in beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat and meat products service or retail establishments (131, 132, 133, and 134).
Infected butchers contaminated steak tartare (seasoned raw ground beef) in such a way that consumers became ill with heptatitis A.; contaminated beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat and meat products caused more consumer illnesses; a cafeteria contaminated roast meat during boning and slicing sufficiently to cause illness in students and faculty. In each of these instances, the virus that contaminated the beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat and meat products originated in the human gut; contamination was either direct or indirect by way of wastewater (33, 138, 137, 136, and 135).
Conclusion
Beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat-associated viral diseases are not transmitted to consumers. However, viruses that originate in the human gut are as likely to contaminate beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat as other foods and, if not inactivated before the beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat is eaten, may cause infections in consumers. Recorded incidents have resulted from mishandling beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat in food service or retailing rather than in slaughtering or processing. Viral contamination of beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat can be avoided by following the same precautions in sanitary handling of beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat and meat products that are applicable to any other foods. From the standpoint of public health, the viral hazards associated with beef, mutton, chevon, venison, fish, and poultry meat are significant but by no means as severe as those of botulism or salmonellosis.
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