Employee performance is crucial for organizational success, as it directly correlates with the quantity of goods and services produced within a defined timeframe [1]. To gain a competitive edge and thrive, organizations require high-performing employees [2]. Campbell [3] suggested that job performance involves many actions, focusing more on behavior than just outcomes achieved. Motowidlo and Kell [4] expanded on this, explaining that performance includes both positive and negative behaviors affecting organizational goals. Different experts have different views on job performance. Some emphasize behavior [3,5-8] while others highlight outcomes [8]. While experts agree that performance involves both behavior and outcomes, they disagree on which aspect truly defines 'performance' [8]. Griffin et al. [9] asserted that behavior is the sole determinant of performance, with outcomes arising as a consequence of that behavior. Performance is a complex concept [10-16] delineated two dimensions of performance: task performance, which encompasses expected job-specific behaviors, including formal and core job responsibilities [9,17], and contextual performance, which comprises discretionary extra-role behaviors not explicitly outlined in an employee’s job description [15,18]. Task performance plays a pivotal role in organizational effectiveness by translating raw materials into products, whereas contextual performance enhances organizational effectiveness by fostering the social and psychological context in which the technical core functions operate [19]. These two dimensions provide a comprehensive understanding of the various facets of employee performance and their impact on organizational success. Employees’ performance, encompassing both task performance and contextual performance, is vital for the success of any organization. Task performance ensures that employees efficiently complete essential job duties that directly impact productivity and output quality, while contextual performance involves going beyond formal job requirements to assist colleagues, take on extra tasks, and foster a positive work environment, thereby enhancing overall organizational effectiveness and cohesion. Recognizing the importance of both task and contextual performance is essential for fostering a thriving workplace culture where employees are not only proficient in their designated roles but also actively contribute to the organization's broader objectives. In essence, the combined efforts of employees in both task and contextual performance are instrumental in driving organizational success and achieving strategic goals. Employee performance is commonly understood to be influenced by numerous factors. Malik et al. [20] and Triansyah et al.[21] conducted a comprehensive review of factors affecting employee performance, such as age, salary, job characteristics, individual abilities, motivation levels, opportunities for advancement, and support from supervisors, this particular study focuses specifically on exploring the influence of employee characteristics on job performance. Roe [22] categorized individual characteristics into three types: (a) dispositional characteristics, which are often referred to as 'personal traits' and are associated with intellectual abilities inherited from genetics and early experiences; (b) habitual characteristics, acquired through interaction with situations, learning processes, or training, encompassing knowledge, skills, attitudes, and habits with a high degree of stability; and (c) motivational characteristics, referring to enduring mental or physical conditions that influence behavior, typically subject to change based on situational factors. Examples include human needs, aspiration levels, and cognitive dissonance. Additionally, Robbins [23] identified four work-related characteristics of employees: (a) biographical traits such as age, gender, marital status, and family size; (b) abilities; (c) personality; and (d) learning. These attributes are pivotal both personally and professionally. The focus of this study lies in examining the direct impact of individual characteristics on the teaching performance of teachers. While previous studies have explored the impact of individual characteristics on teaching performance extensively [24-29,19,30-32] this research presents a novel contribution to the field. Inspired by the findings of Werang et al. [33] and Werang et al. [34] which highlighted a concerning rate of absenteeism among elementary school teachers in the Southern Papua region, we felt compelled to delve deeper into this topic to address the issue of low academic performance among indigenous Papuan students when compared to their counterparts in other regions of Indonesia [35-37]. Understanding the individual characteristics is crucial as they can significantly impact how employees perform their roles within the organization and contribute to overall outcomes. By delving into teachers’ characteristics, this research aims to shed light on the intricate interplay between individual characteristics and teachers’ teaching performance, providing valuable insights for enhancing workforce effectiveness and achieving organizational goals. As none of the accessible studies have empirically explored this topic within the context of eastern parts of Indonesia in general and of the Southern Papua Province area in particular, the study may fill in the existing knowledge gap by examining how teachers' characteristics predict their teaching performance using the elementary school teachers in the Southern Papua Province as the population and samples. We probed one research question to guide the study as the following: “Do the individual characteristics predict significantly positively the elementary school teachers’ teaching performance in Southern Papua, Indonesia?” Two quantitative surveys are used to address this research question.

This study adopts a quantitative research approach employing a survey design methodology. The choice of survey design is based on the advantages it offers, as evidenced by numerous contemporary studies [38-40]. These benefits include its cost-effectiveness, ease of data collection, and the ability to yield statistically significant results. Two survey questionnaires were distributed to a sample of 1277 elementary school teachers, conveniently selected for the study. This approach allows for a systematic and structured investigation into the research questions, enabling the collection of robust data to analyze and draw meaningful conclusions regarding the subject under investigation. To assess the elementary school teacher teaching performance, we utilized a questionnaire of 15 items from a previous study piloted by Asaloei et al. [40]. To keep the accuracy of data, all the items of questionnaires were distributed in the Indonesian language. All the respondents were asked to rate their response on a four-point Likert scale, scored from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 4 (Strongly Agree). The examples of the English version of the items of questionnaires are the following: “I use a variety of learning methods to teach for understanding,” “I carefully assess students’ work,” “I give students the opportunities to lead the class,” and “I take times to engage in various seminars or conferences to upgrade knowledge and teaching skills.” We employed face validity to test the validity of the instrument as it was used in several previous studies. To test the validity of the instrument, we employed face validity as it was used in several current studies. The internal reliability of the instrument was tested using Cronbach’s alpha (α) coefficient value. The Croncbach’s alpha (α) coefficient value of this study is 0.792.

To assess the elementary teacher's characteristics, we utilized a questionnaire of 18 items from a current study piloted by Werang [41]. To keep the accuracy of data, all the items of questionnaires were distributed in the Indonesian language. All the respondents were asked to rate their response on a four-point Likert scale, scored from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 4 (Strongly Agree). The examples of the English version of the items of questionnaires are the following: “I typically provide time for attending seminars or workshops that are related to the teaching activities,” “I try my best for the nation’s youth,” “I have to work hard every day acquire an extra income for helping my siblings,” and “Being a teacher is my passion to assist the nation’s youth.” To test the validity of the instrument, we employed face validity as it was used in several current studies. The internal reliability of the instrument was tested using Cronbach’s alpha (α) coefficient value. The Croncbach’s alpha (α) coefficient value of this study is 0.751. The obtained data underwent rigorous statistical analysis employing inferential statistics, facilitated by the utilization of SPSS software version 21. In this study, we explored a specific research hypothesis pertaining to the predictive relationship between individual characteristics and the teaching performance of elementary school teachers in Southern Papua. The hypothesis was formulated as follows: “The individual characteristics predict significantly positively the teaching performance of the elementary school teacher teaching performance in Southern Papua.” To test this hypothesis, a significance level of alpha (α) = .05, corresponding to a confidence level of 95%, was applied. Through this analytical approach, we aimed to ascertain the extent to which individual characteristics influence teaching performance, thereby contributing valuable insights to the educational landscape in Southern Papua.

This study was intended to explore how the teacher's characteristics predict elementary school teacher teaching performance in Southern Papua. As abovementioned, gathered data were statistically analyzed using inferential statistics by employing the SPSS software version 21. The significant result of statistical analysis is presented in Table 1.

Table 1: The result of statistical analysis on the impact of individual characteristics on job performance.

A.Predictors: (Constant), Individual_Characteristics

B.Dependent Variable: Job_Performance

The data presented in Table 1 offer compelling evidence that individual characteristics serve as significant predictors of the teaching performance of elementary school teachers in Southern Papua. This validation of the research hypothesis not only affirms the importance of teacher attributes but also emphasizes their pivotal role in shaping instructional effectiveness within the classroom. Simply put, teachers' characteristics and qualities significantly influence their ability to deliver high-quality instruction and engage students effectively. The result of statistical analysis, characterized by an R2 coefficient value of .782 and a Sig. F Change value of .000 provides substantial insight into the extent to which teacher characteristics influence teaching performance. Specifically, the findings suggest that 78.2% of the variance in teaching performance can be attributed to teacher characteristics at the alpha (α) level of .05, signifying their dominant influence in driving educational outcomes. This highlights the critical significance of considering individual characteristics when assessing and enhancing the effectiveness of teachers in the classroom setting.

Teacher individual characteristics play a pivotal role in organizational success, exerting significant influence on teacher behaviors such as initiative and motivation to exceed expectations [23]. The findings from the inferential statistics analysis, as illustrated in Table 1, reveal a noteworthy predictive correlation: for every point increase in teacher individual characteristics, there is a corresponding increase of 0.782 points in elementary school teacher teaching performance in Southern Papua, Indonesia. Conversely, for every point decrease in teachers’ characteristics, there is a decrease of 0.782 points in teachers’ job performance in the elementary schools of Southern Papua. This indicates a direct predictive relationship between teachers' characteristics and their job performance, where favorable characteristics lead to higher performance levels and vice versa. These findings align with prior research by [24,27,30 and [41] which similarly underscore the positive and significant impact of individual characteristics on employees' job performance. Teachers exhibit a diverse range of behaviors influenced by their characteristics. Those with positive individual characteristics tend to view their school principals and peers as collaborators, working together as a cohesive team to shape the future leaders of the nation. Moreover, teachers with favorable individual characteristics approach school tasks with a sense of dedication, recognizing them as opportunities to invest in the future lives of their students. Such teachers embrace new challenges as avenues for personal and professional growth, leveraging them as opportunities to progress in their careers [42] Conversely, teachers with disrespectful individual characteristics often perceive their school principals and peers as rivals, viewing their interactions through a competitive lens rather than one of cooperation. This negative outlook impedes their ability to benefit from new challenges, hindering their professional advancement. Moreover, teachers with disrespectful traits may tend to voice complaints rather than actively engage in problem-solving or collaboration. This can lead to disengagement from the educational setting, with some opting to seek fulfillment in urban environments through alternative activities [43,44]. Teachers are pivotal in driving both school effectiveness and students' success, relying heavily on their determination, motivation, and adeptness in implementing effective teaching practices. Acknowledging the impact of individual characteristics on job performance underscores the importance of fostering positive traits among educators. This not only enhances their classroom effectiveness but also contributes to the overall success of the organization. Recognizing the vital role teachers play in shaping the future, it becomes imperative to promote and support their positive individual characteristics. By cultivating an environment that nurtures favorable traits, educational institutions empower teachers to exceed standard expectations, ultimately benefiting both educators and the students they serve. School principals, as key leaders within educational institutions, play a crucial role in cultivating a culture that values and supports the development of positive teacher characteristics. School principals who view and treat teachers as integral members of their own families foster an environment of trust and collaboration. Such supportive leadership can motivate teachers to go above and beyond what is expected of them, ultimately leading to improved outcomes for students. As highlighted by the OECD (as cited in [45], involving teachers in the management process can facilitate effective change implementation, underscoring the importance of collaborative leadership in driving educational excellence. Thus, investing in teacher development programs aimed at enhancing qualities such as adaptability, resilience, and interpersonal skills becomes essential for fostering a thriving educational environment.

Based on the result of inferential statistics analysis that has previously been discussed, the study concludes that the teacher's characteristics predict significantly positively the elementary school teacher teaching performance in Southern Papua, Indonesia. As this study offers a first look at how individual characteristics predict the job performance of elementary school teachers in Southern Papua, the results of this study may hypothetically add to the existing body of knowledge by serving as a useful extension of other pertinent studies carried out in other regions of Indonesia and in other nations as well. The results of this study may also help the school principals and educational policymakers in Southern Papua to improve elementary school teacher job performance by fostering noble characteristics of teachers. As none of the accessible studies have empirically explored this topic within the context of eastern parts of Indonesia in general and of the Southern Papua area in particular, the study may fill in the existing knowledge gap by serving as a useful extension of other pertinent studies carried out in other regions of Indonesia and other nations as well. This study is limited to both the research area and the dependent variable. To the research area, this study is only carried out in the area of Southern Papua. Therefore, future studies with a wider range of areas would be strongly recommended. For the dependent variable, this study focuses only on the teacher's teaching performance. To better understand the phenomenon of teacher individual characteristics and how it predicts the school's effectiveness, the number of dependent variables should also be added.

1. Leonard K. Importance of employee performance in business organizations. 2019.
2. Ronan SW, Prien EP. Toward a criterion theory: A review and analysis of research and opinion. Greensboro, NC: The Richardson Foundation. 1996.
3. Campbell JP. Modeling the performance prediction problem in industrial and organizational psychology. In M D. Dunnette MD, Hough LM (Eds.). Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. 1990; 687-732.
4. Motowidlo SJ, Kell HJ. Job Performance. In Werner IB, Schmitt NW, Highhouse S. (Eds.). Industrial and Organizational Psychology. 2012; 91-130.
5. Campbell JP, McCloy RA, Oppler SH, Sagger CE. A theory of performance. In Schmitt E, Borman WC (Eds.). Personnel Selection in Organizations. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.1993; 35-70.
6. Kanfer R. Motivation theory and industrial and organizational psychology. In Dunnette MD, Hough LM (Eds.). Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologist Press. 1990; 75-170.
7. Roe RA. Work performance: A multiple regulation perspective. In Cooper CL, Robertson IT (Eds.). International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Chichester: Wiley. 1999; 231-335.
8. Sonentag S, Frese M. Performance concept and performance theory. In S. Sonentag (Ed.). Psychological Management of Individual Performance. London: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 2005; 1-25.
9. Griffin MA, Neal A, Neale M. The contribution of task performance and contextual performance to effectiveness: Investigating the role of situational constraints. Applied Psychology: An International Review. 2000; 49: 517-533.
10. Bass B. Individual capability, team performance, and team productivity. In M. Dunnette & E. Fleishman (Eds.). Human Performance and Productivity: Human Capability Assessment. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. 1982: 179-232.
11. Dunnette M. A note on the criterion. Journal of Applied Psychology. 1963; 47: 251-254.
12. Pickle H, Friedlander F. Seven societal criteria of organizational success. Personnel Psychology. 1967; 20: 165-178.
13. Ronan SW, Prien EP. Toward a criterion theory: A review and analysis of research and opinion. Greensboro, NC: The Richardson Foundation. 1996.
14. Seashore S. Defining and measuring the quality of working life. In Davis L, Cherns A. (Eds.). The Quality of Working Life. New York: The Free Press. 1975; 105-118.
15. Borman WC, Motowidlo SM. Expanding the criterion domain to include elements of contextual performance. In N. Schmitt & W. C. Borman (Eds.), Personnel selection in organizations. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. 1993; 71-98.
16. Motowidlo SJ, Borman WC, Schmit MJ. A theory of individual differences in task and contextual performance. Human Performance. 1997; 10: 71-83.
17. Borman WC. The concept of organizational citizenship. Current Directions in Psychological Science. 2004; 13: 238-241.
18. Motowidlo SJ, Van Scotter JR. Evidence that task performance should be distinguished from contextual performance. Journal of Applied Psychology. 1994; 79: 475-480.
19. Jalil SW, Achan P, Mojolou DN, Rozaimie A. Individual characteristics and job performance: Generation Y at SMEs in Malaysia. 2015; 170: 137-145.
20. Malik MI, Ahmad A, Gomez SF, Ali M. A Study of work environment and employees’ performance in Pakistan. African Journal of Business Management. 2011; 5: 13227-13232.
21. Triansyah FA, Hejin W, Stefania S. Factors affecting employee performance: A systematic review. Journal Markcount Finance. 2023; 1: 150-159.
22. Roe RA. Individual characteristics. In Drenth JD, Thierry H, Willems PJ, De Wolf CJ. (Eds.). Hand Book of Work and Organizational Psychology. 1984; 103-130.
23. Robbins S. Organization theory. Third Edition. 1996.
24. Ananda SS, Sunuharyo BS. Pengaruh karakteristik individu dan karakteristik pekerjaan terhadap kinerja karyawan dengan variabel mediator motivasi kerja karyawan (Studi pada Karyawan PT Petrokimi Gresik). Jurnal Administrasi Bisnis. 2018; 58: 67-76.
25. Bhatti MA, Kaur S, Battour MM. Effects of individual characteristics on ex-patriates’ adjustment and job performance. Eur J Training Develop. 2013; 37: 544-563.
26. Hanafi A. The influence of individual characteristics and organizational climate on satisfaction and its impact on employee performance. Sains Humanika. 2016; 8: 37-44.
27. Handayati R. The Influence of Individual Characteristics on Employee Performance at Bank Jatim Lamongan Branch (A Study at Bank Jatim Lamongan Branch). Lamongan Branch). J Econ Account Res. 2016; 1: 127-140.
28. Herizal H, Ismayli I, Busra B. The effect of individual characteristics and work environment on employee performance at the education office of Pidie Jaya Regency. Budapest International Research and Critics Institute-Journal, 2022; 5: 20150-20160.
29. Hidayat R, Cavorina A. The Influence of Individual Characteristics and Work Environment on Employee Performance of Pt Cladtek Bi Metal Manufacturing. J Bus Admin. 2017; 1: 187-197.
30. Suryanto S, Sandra J. The effect of individual characteristics, work placement and work environment on employee performance (Case study on PT Post Energy Indonesia Jakarta Office). Manag Res Stud J. 2021; 2: 107-124.
31. Triansyah FA, Hejin W, Stefania S. Factor’s affecting employee performance: A systematic review. Journal Markcount Finance. 2023; 1: 150-159.
32. Wijayanti WS, Sjahruddin H, Razak N. The Influence of Individual Characteristics and Use of Information Technology on Employee Performance. J Organ Manag. 2017; 1: 14-28.
33. Werang BR, Leba SMR, Pure EAG. Factors influencing teacher absenteeism in the remote elementary schools of Indonesia: Empirical proof from southern Papua. Int J Manag Educ. 2017; 11: 223-247.
34. Werang BR, Agung AAG, Hurit Increasing teacher attendance in Indonesia: A longitudinal study in the remote elementary schools of Southern Papua. Int J Manag Educ. 2019; 13: 133-155.
35. Habeahan NLS, Leba SMR, Wahyuniar W, Tarigan DBr, Asaloei SI, Werang BR. Online teaching in an Indonesian higher education institution: Students’ perspective. Int J Eval Res Educ. 2022; 11: 580-587.
36. Sianturi M, Chiang C, Hurit AA. Impact of a place-based education curriculum on indigenous teacher and students. International Journal of Instruction, 2018; 11: 311-328.
37. Werang BR, Suarjana IM, Dewi KK, Asaloei SI. Indonesian language teachers’ teaching performance and student learning outcomes. Int J Eval Res Educ. 2023; 12: 1271-1277.
38. Wea D, Werang BR, Asmaningrum HP, Irianto O. Teachers’ working conditions and job performance in the elementary schools of Indonesia: A Survey from Southern Papua. Int J Educ Organ Leadersh. 2020; 27: 37-46.
39. Werang BR, Leba SMR, Agung AAG. Wullur MM, Yunarti BS, Asaloei SI. Indonesian teachers’ emotional exhaustion and commitment to teaching: A correlational study. Cypriot J Educ Sci. 2021; 16: 522-531.
40. Asaloei SI, Wolomasi AK, Werang Work-related stress and performance among primary school teachers. International Int J Eval Res Educ. 2020; 9: 352-358.
41. Werang BR. The effect of workload, individual characteristics, and school climate on teachers’ emotional exhaustion in elementary schools of Papua. Cakrawala Pendidikan, 2018; 37: 457-469.
42. Werang BR. A study of relationships in Christian primary schools of Boven Digoel regency, Papua, Indonesia. Int Educ Organ Leadersh. 2015; 22: 25-32.
43. Mulford B. School leaders: Challenging roles and impact on teacher and school effectiveness. OECD Commissioned Paper. 2003.
44. Yang C, Hwang M. Personality traits and simultaneous reciprocal influences between job performance and job satisfaction. Chinese Manag Stud. 2014; 8: 6-26.