Global climate change has specifically highlighted sectors that play a substantial role in the release of greenhouse gases (GHGs), and tourism has been pinpointed as one of them. Of the numerous aspects of the tourism industry, the hotel sector has specifically been highlighted due to high energy usage, resource consumption, and waste production. The hotel operation methods, such as the thermal control of bedrooms, laundry, provision of food, and usage of plastics, put high strain on the environment's balance [1,2]. Whereas conventional literature has extensively focused on emissions from transportation and flying, research and policy circles have increasingly highlighted the carbon impact of accommodation services, especially on urban hotel types.

In many developing countries, debate on the topic of greenhouse gas emissions has been largely theoretical, mainly due to a lack of data and weak institutional frameworks. The case in Nairobi, the capital of Kenya and a major tourist and commercial hub in East Africa, is a telling example. Despite the growth of Nairobi and its hospitality industry, little has been done to measure the impact of these developments on carbon emissions. Many of the hotels in Nairobi, especially those with good ratings, have mainly relied on diesel generators due to an unreliability in the power supply, used energy-intensive services like laundry and housekeeping, and used vast amounts of single-use plastics (Maithya, 2023). However, few of these hotels have adopted tracking and reporting systems for their environmental footprint.

At the same time, Kenya evidenced a clear commitment to climate change through observance of the international treaties, such as the Paris Agreement and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and specifically highlighted SDG 13 (Climate Action). The National Climate Change Action Plan (2018-2022) set targets to reduce emissions and encourage the use of renewable energy, but the hotel industry was almost completely ignored in such plans. The ignorance of the hotel industry meant that, despite hotels being major emitting entities within urban environments, there were no set protocols for measuring or reducing the environmental impact related to hotels [3].

Several regional studies carried out across the world have shown that higher-rated hotels often generate higher levels of carbon, as a result of their larger physical footprints, better amenities, and higher service demands [4,5]. These findings align with those of Nairobi. Hotels with more complex operations, those of 4 and 5 stars, for instance, had higher rates of electricity and fuel usage, produced higher levels of waste, and showed higher levels of dependency on extensive supply chains and labor networks. There existed, however, a significant lack of awareness on the part of hotel managers and workers of the environmental effects of such activities, and a lack of guidance on ways of reducing them.

This study sought to fill this gap through the conduct of a qualitative assessment of emissions at 15 hotels conveniently selected across Nairobi. In interviews with hotel managers, technicians, and service providers, the research examined standard operational methods and identified major emission sources. In addition, the research explored how hotel size, rating, and organizational expertise influence the scope of carbon footprints. Thus, the research aspired to provide practical recommendations on emissions minimization at the hotel level, which can be attained through enhanced waste management methods, integration of renewable energy technologies, and deployment of simplified carbon accounting methods.

Finally, this study has progressed the necessary dialogue on sustainable tourism in African urban centers. As hospitality in Nairobi and other places continues to grow, there is a critical need for solutions that sit within local contexts and that harmonize with both economic development and environmental conservation. Through a focus on practical solutions and integrating the insights of industry stakeholders, the research sought to influence both policy-making and the actual implementation of policies, hence guiding the industry toward a climate-resilient and environmentally sustainable future.

This research used a qualitative methodology, employing a semi-structured interview guide to explore sources of carbon emissions and mitigation issues in urban hotels in Nairobi. The approach provided in-depth insights into operational practices, staff awareness, and institutional barriers. Data were collected through direct interviews with hotel personnel, capturing lived experiences and managerial perspectives relevant to sustainability and emissions. This design was suitable for understanding complex, context-specific environmental practices in real-world hospitality settings.

Instruments for Data Collection

Data was collected using a semi-structured interview guide developed to acquire detailed answers regarding hotel operations related to carbon emissions. The guide consisted of standardized questions that focused on areas like energy usage, waste management, plastic usage, and environmental awareness.

Data collection was made possible through three main instruments:

1. Audio recorder – used to capture interview responses for transcription.
2. Notebook and pen – for note-taking during interviews and observations.

A printed interview guide was sent to participants before each

session to encourage openness and enable well-informed participation.

Before each interview started, participants were briefed on the objectives and importance of the study. Informed consent was obtained, and respondents were encouraged to ask questions and clarify any issues they may have. Interviews were only done after participants fully understood the process and agreed to participate.

Data Analysis

The data collected from interviews was subjected to thematic analysis, which is a qualitative method aimed at discovering patterns and meaning within narrative feedback. The responses were transcribed and thoroughly coded to determine major themes related to carbon emission sources, business practices, and organizational consciousness.

The interview schedule also gathered data on hotel amenities and services, such as generator use, waste management practices, and laundry methods, previously explored through their contribution to carbon emissions. Thematic categories were determined by an inductive process, allowing for comparisons across different classifications of hotels and types of establishments.

Key Informant Interviews

To acquire a deeper operational understanding of carbon emission sources and sustainability measures, the current research employed Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) of selected hotel staff. The interviews included representatives of four major staff categories: hotel management, front desk officers, food and beverage, and maintenance staff. The choice of informants was deliberately strategic and based on their respective positions, mandates, and specialties pertinent to hotel operations regarding energy use, waste generation, and service provision.

Purposive sampling was used to ensure the participation of persons responsible for direct energy use, facilities management, and guest service activities. The selection and interview variables were guided by literature and prior research on environmental practices within hotel management. The variables subjected to examination include energy procurement, maintenance functions, food service, and guest service activities, which all contribute to carbon emissions in varying degrees.

Information gathered during interviews underwent thematic analysis in order to enable the identification of patterns and discrepancies in responses in various types of hotel categories.

Tables 1: Key Informant Interview Summary by Hotel Category.

Source: Field Survey, 2025

The findings from the key informant interviews showed a direct relationship between Nairobi's hotel activities and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The views of the respondents were assessed against several factors, such as electricity sources, fuel usage, transportation services, plastic usage, waste production and management, and laundry operations. Thematic analysis, supported by field observations, showed a common lack of environmental awareness among different hotel categories, with most operations showing minimal initiatives toward carbon reduction.

With regard to energy demand, most responses stated that they rely on the national grid (Kenya Power), complemented by diesel generators. Despite the frequent power blackouts and general supply variability, a significant increase in the use of generator sets was noted in hotels, especially of higher ratings, to satisfy their energy needs. In contrast, one-star hotels used their generator sets for power supply only within special time frames, depending on their resource status and service levels. As such, fuel consumption increased in relation to the level of services provided, as three- and four-star hotels showed substantially higher diesel or petrol consumption due to their higher energy needs.

Transportation methods ranged greatly within hotel classes. One-star hotels normally operated on lower capacities and lacked transportation service to customers, relying on public means of transportation for the movement of staff and goods procurement. Conversely, four-star hotels had a higher probability of carpooling or shuttle service specific to the needs of international customers and had dedicated chauffeurs for service and food service movement. The increased transportation demand in higher-class hotels represented higher fuel consumption and respective carbon emissions.

Information gathered on fuel purchases validated these findings. Interviews had shown that daily fuel amounts purchased were inherently determined by electricity needs and service offerings. Irregular power supply has led to more dependence on generators, particularly for hotels offering full services. Larger hotels found it difficult to operate effectively without a stable supply of electricity, leading to a substantial increase in fuel consumption and related emissions.

Waste generation patterns were closely linked to the type of hotel operations. One-star establishments produced very little waste compared to two- and three-star hotels, which generated moderate amounts. Four-star hotels produced the most waste due to their comprehensive kitchen, guest, and event services. The waste sorting practices across all categories were inadequate: nearly all one- and two-star hotels lacked waste segregation systems. A small number of three- and four-star hotels had basic sorting measures, but overall, compliance with regulatory standards was minimal. Interviewees valued the waste management services provided by Nairobi City County; however, they were dissatisfied with the delays and inefficiency of waste collection, especially in lower-ranked hotels.

Plastic use was common across all hotel types, mainly for food and beverage services. Bottled water, packing materials, and takeout containers were widely used. While one-, two-, and three-star hotels showed some reuse of plastic, their recycling efforts were mostly informal and limited. Four-star hotels, however, demonstrated a stronger commitment to reuse, resale, and recycling, although they still lacked a well-organized sustainability strategy. Plastic use was often justified as necessary for enhancing guest convenience, especially with takeout services.

Laundry activities were found to be a significant source of greenhouse gas emissions. Most hotels offered laundry services not only for in-house guests but also for external customers, which led to enormous augmentation in terms of water and energy consumption. This trend was noted in all categories of hotels, though strongly in the mid-range and higher-category hotels. Few of these establishments promoted eco-efficient laundry technology or practices to mitigate such negative impacts.

Transportation emissions have been identified as a major environmental issue. The hospitality industry's direct connection to transportation, particularly concerning guest transfers and in-house logistics, means that hotels actively contribute to the increase in carbon emissions in transportation. This is especially true among higher-rated hotels that offer airport shuttle services and carpooling.

Overall, the research identified an entrenched deficit in awareness and official records on carbon emissions. None of the hotels interviewed had in place protocols relating to reporting or measuring greenhouse gas emissions. There existed little institutional knowledge on climate change effects, and staff training on sustainability concerns occurred relatively infrequently. The absence of harmonized carbon accounting tools and political incentives compounded the issue, consequently putting Nairobi's hotel industry at a competitive disadvantage in achieving national climate targets or external commitments like the Paris Agreement.

Table 2: Perception and Assessment of Hotel Management on Carbon Emissions in One-Star Hotels.

Source: Field Survey, 2025

Table 3: Perception and Assessment of Hotel Management on Carbon Emissions in Two-Star Hotels.

Source: Field Survey, 2025

Table 4: Perception and Assessment of Hotel Management on Carbon Emissions in Three-Star Hotels.

Source: Field Survey, 2025

The study of emission factors from one- to four-star hotels in Nairobi revealed a strong correlation between the hotel's size and its greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. An increase in hotel size, measured by total accommodation units and the range of services offered, was found to be positively associated with higher emissions (see Tables 6–9). Larger hotels, especially those providing a variety of services such as restaurants, fitness and well-being centers, bars, and recreational pools, exhibited higher carbon emissions due to elevated energy use and waste production. This finding supports previous research, which shows that luxury hotels tend to emit more GHGs compared to smaller accommodation or self-catering units, as they require more infrastructure and services [4].

To assess emissions, the research followed the methodology suggested in the literature by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and other related sources [6] The calculation of carbon dioxide (CO?) emissions due to the combustion of fossil fuels has been done using the known chemical reaction as follows:

C+O2→CO2

Using the atomic weights (carbon = 12, oxygen = 16, carbon dioxide = 44), the conversion ratio of carbon-to-carbon dioxide would be approximately:

44/12≈3.67

Therefore, the direct coefficient used to convert the carbon content of fossil fuels into emissions of carbon dioxide is 3.67, consistent with the internationally accepted standards of emissions accounting.

Additionally, the emissions from solid wastes were calculated by using the volume of MSW incinerated, based on the IPCC Guidelines for Greenhouse Gas Inventories [7]. The formula used for emission calculation was:

touris mi=WB×EFi

Where:

Mi represents the emission of pollutant i.

EFi = Emission factor for pollutant i (in kg-CO?/ton MSW)

WB = Amount of MSW burned (kg/year)

During the current research, the average emission factor of the open incineration of waste, commonly found in Kenya, was determined to be 801.2 kg CO?/metric ton of waste, which corresponds to 0.88 kg CO?/kg of MSW, as noted in Oladeji, Adebayo, & Osei [8]. These rates were used in assessing the contribution of waste from hotels to the total emissions associated with a specific type of hotel.

By incorporating energy consumption and waste generation emission factors, the study offers a detailed analysis of operational emissions in Nairobi's hospitality sector. The analysis reveals key areas of intervention by policies and sustainable practices that can help significantly reduce environmental impacts.

Table 5: Emission Factors for One-Star Hotels in Nairobi, Kenya.

Source: Field Survey, Nairobi (2025)

Table 6: Emission Factors for Two-Star Hotels in Nairobi, Kenya.

Source: Field Survey, Nairobi (2025)

Table 7 Emission Factors for Three-Star Hotels in Nairobi, Kenya.

Source: Field Survey, Nairobi (2025)

Table 8: Emission Factors for Four-Star Hotels in Nairobi, Kenya.

Source: Field Survey, Nairobi (2025)

Emission Sources in Nairobi Hotels

The United Nations World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO) has also presented that the entire hotel sector releases approximately 1% of all carbon emissions [5]. As an economically developing and fast urbanising capital, Nairobi is one of the key tourist and hotel hubs in East Africa. From the studies, it has been revealed that Nairobi hotels' activities are among the causes of the emission of greenhouse gases, through transport, use of energy, and waste management.

Transportation was one of the highest emission sources, more so in high-rated hotels (3–4 stars) that typically run carpool and airport transport for visitors. This is also in line with the United Nations World Tourism Organization [UNWTO] (2020)'s report, wherein the transport sector on the entire globe contributed around 7.3 billion metric tons of CO? emissions in 2020, and therefore, it is one of the highest contributors to climate change. In Nairobi, excessive use of internal combustion vehicles running on PMS and diesel emits more carbon, in line with previous studies, wherein transport-related CO? has been estimated among the highest emitters in urban economies.

Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions

From the data gathered in the 1 to 4-star hotels, it has been discovered that there is a direct correlation between energy consumption and CO? emission. As in the rest of the cities within Africa, Nairobi hotels also significantly rely on diesel generators because the supply of electricity is unreliable. This also corroborates with Mozersky & Kammen [9], where generators are seen providing over 6% of the installed energy capacity within Africa, partly due to the lack of capital investment in renewable energy installations.

Some Nairobi hotels, particularly 3-star and 4-star, would use over 6,000 kg of CO? worth of fuel weekly to run facilities like hot pools, spas, washing machines, and restaurants. This concurs with Abdallah & El-Shennawy [10] and Chen, Zhang, & Li [4], whose research results showed that fossil-fuel burning in the hotel industry released significant quantities of carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxide (NOX), nitrous oxide (N2O), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and methane (CH4) gases, all powerful GHGs. As Kenyan hospitality continues to grow, petroleum-powered system uses will continue to increase emissions if more emphasis is not placed on sustainable conversions.

Solid Waste Carbon Emissions

Waste management also constituted one of the key emission points in Nairobi hotels. The research findings indicated that, with the increase in the class of hotels, waste generated also climbed, and four-star hotels produced the maximum amount. The above finding confirms the United Nations World Tourism Organization [UNWTO] (2020) and Wu, Lai, & Tang [11], whose studies indicated the high role of the hotel industry in providing urban waste flows. Burning of waste, primarily open burning (which is common in Kenya), results in very high emissions of CO?, estimated at around 0.88 kg CO? per kg of solid waste (SW).

The study identified that a majority of hotels offload waste management to local councils, yet few hotels utilize efficient recycling or segregation mechanisms. This is in line with findings in the Sustainable Hospitality Alliance (2021), which similarly conclude that waste reporting and auditing are necessary to facilitate emission reductions. Shifts toward reduce-reuse-recycle (3Rs) behavior for hotels can also drive faster reductions in environmental footprints and facilitate closer alignment with SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production).

Nairobi Hotels' Carbon Footprints

The carbon footprint calculation carried out in the study also reflected a strong correlation between emissions and hotel class. The bigger hotels possessed bigger service facilities and always reported higher emissions, consistent with Chen, Zhang, & Li [5]’s finding that high-end hotels with spa, bar, and conference facilities consume more energy and produce higher waste than budget hotels and guest houses.

In Nairobi, electricity generation, fuel burning, waste, and laundry services were the overall leading causes of each of the hotels' entire carbon footprint. Despite being connected to grid electricity, the majority of the hotels generate electricity independently through diesel generators, hence the poor resilience of electric infrastructures within Kenyan cities. This confirms Gössling & Peeters [12], whose review revealed that the accommodation sector bears an unfair share of the overall emissions of tourism, given the high energy intensity of guest services.

These results reveal the emphasis on the capital city's hospitality sector adopting carbon accounting technologies and reduction of emissions, especially considering that the sector is still expanding in the aftermath of increasing tourist inflows.

Carbon Footprint Minimization Strategies

The findings also suggest the need for policy interventions and campaigns to reduce carbon emissions in hotels. That is also in line with the work of [3,13,14], who again emphasize the need for multi-stakeholder engagement, governments, researchers, and hoteliers in developing sustainable solutions to reduce emissions.

Levels of awareness among staff and visitors were low, and therefore, training and education programs among the staff were also required. Carbon literacy is essential to changing behavior, according to Mensah [15], and therefore, such education has to be incorporated at every level of hotel operation. These kinds of programs need to be localized and incorporate low-cost initiatives such as energy audits, low-flow water systems, solar water heaters, and waste reduction enhancements.

In accordance with the Global Hotel Decarbonisation Report, hotels worldwide must cut absolute carbon emissions by 60% in 2030 and 90% in 2050 in a bid to remain within long-term climate targets [5]. Nairobi hotels are not left behind. As the tourism sector is still growing in the region, cutting GHG emissions will be necessary towards achieving such development, ecologically sustainable, economically sound, and socially equitable.

The research intended to assess Nairobi hotels, Kenya, in terms of their carbon footprint and greenhouse gas (GHG) reporting. 12 one to four-star-rated hotels were sampled based on their CO? emissions, the leading greenhouse gas of concern. The research findings were that electricity produced from diesel is the largest single source of emissions, especially for hotels with minimal access to reliable grid electricity. Others, like the production of solid waste, laundry, and water consumption, were significant sources of emissions that indirectly add to GHG emissions via energy consumption and waste breakdown [8].

The study also revealed that the methodology used, in reconciling activity data and emission factors (EFs) through the implementation of IPCC protocols, is expandable outside of the pilot sample to the whole hotel sector. It can be utilized in emission baselines development required in monitoring, benchmarking, and carbon footprint savings strategy development in the sector [3].

One of the main constraints was the absence of policies or enforcement measures with clear objectives for hotel emissions in Nairobi. Their absence has hindered the development of incentives for hotel owners to adopt environmental management practices or to implement open-source GHG accounting guidelines. This issue is common in tourism-heavy areas where policy gaps and limited climate awareness have impeded sustainable development [5,8].

To curb this problem, this study proposes a model of environmental responsibility integration of hotels. It includes the promotion of:

1. Education and environmental awareness of tourists and hotel workers.
2. Public-private partnership capacity-building programmes.
3. Harmonization of the national institutions with Kenya's national climate targets;
4. Regular reporting and GHG disclosure using web-based reporting and dashboards for transparency reasons.

Besides, executing creative and technological measures is essential in relation to emission curbing. They are:

1. Installation of renewable energy technologies like solar PV, biogas systems, and energy storage in a bid to minimize the utilization of diesel generators [9];
2. Smart integration of building technologies such as automatic lighting, energy-efficient appliances, and IoT-driven HVAC systems to rationalize the use of energy [10];
3. Deployment of technologies for digital reporting and monitoring, like carbon accounting software, GHG reporting using blockchain for higher transparency, and predictive analytics using AI to identify emission hotspots [13];
4. Introduction of new waste-to-energy technologies and water recycling projects to curb indirect emissions [15].

This change should be accompanied by:

1. Sustainable building designs and retrofitting of buildings with green technologies [14];
2. Innovation-oriented development and execution of green operation policies [16];
3. Compliance with national and county environmental standards, backed by electronic tracking of compliance.

To accompany the findings outlined within, additional research is recommended on:

1. The refrigerant and air-conditioning system's greenhouse gas imprint, of wider relevance in Nairobi city hotels, based on new technologies for cooling.
2. Hotels' transportation fleets, where the operation of electric vehicles and smart mobility systems can remarkably reduce emissions.
3. Sectoral greenhouse gas inventory development through big data and online platforms in accordance with the Paris Agreement Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) of Kenya.

Finally, if Nairobi's tourism industry is to grow alongside global climate ambitions, it needs to incorporate carbon literacy, sustainability, and technological advancement into its culture. This integration, besides being crucial for nature conservation, becomes essential for competitiveness in the increasingly climate-conscious global marketplace of international tourism [14].

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